Abstract
In this study, responses of White/European American and African American men to dominant norms of masculinity within the United States were investigated. A general model for male identity formation is presented including the influence of cultural perspectives, dominant cultural norms, and specific circumstances. A questionnaire identifying 24 specific male gender role messages was administered to 451 White/European American men and 58 African American men. Results of this study suggest that at age 18 African American men report similar perspectives about masculinity as do White/European American men, but as they grow older their views of masculinity tend to diverge from the views held by White/European Americans.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Bernal, M. E., & Knight, G. P. (Eds.). (1993).Ethnic identity: Formation and transmission among Hispanics and other minorities. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Daniell, M. (1989, May). How marketers see Milwaukee.The Milwaukee Journal Business Section, pp. 1, 14.
David, D., & Brannon, R. (1976). The male sex role: Our culture's blueprint of manhood, and what it's done for us lately. In D. David & R. Brannon (Eds.),The forty nine percent majority. New York: Random House.
DuBois, W. (1903).Souls of Black folk. Chicago: McClurg.
Duneier, M. (1992).Slim's table. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Franklin, C. W. (1984).The changing definition of masculinity. New York: Plenum Press.
Gary, L. (Ed.). (1981).Black men. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
Gerzon, M. (1982).A choice of heroes. New York: Houghton Mifflin.
Gibbs, J. T. (1988).Young, Black, and male in America: An endangered species. Dover, MA: Auburn House.
Gilmore, D. (1990).Manhood in the making. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Gordon, M. (1964).Assimilation in American life. New York: Oxford University Press.
Greene, M. (1993). The Passions of pluralism.Educational Researcher, 22(1), 13–18.
Hacker, A. (1992).Two nations: Black and White, separate, hostile, unequal. New York: Ballantine.
Harris, I. (1988). Male messages.Men's Study Review, 5 3–5.
Harris, I. (1994). Men as standard bearers.The Journal of Men's Studies, 3(2), 103–125.
Harris, I. (in press).Messages men hear: Constructing masculinities. London: Taylor & Francis.
Harris, S., & Majors, R. (1993). Cultural value difference: Implications for the experiences of African-American men.The Journal of Men's Studies, 1 227–238.
Heiss, J., & Owens, S. (1972). Self-evaluation of Blacks and Whites.American Journal of Sociology, 38 360–370.
Horsman, R. (1986).Race and manifest destiny: The origins of American racial Anglo-Saxonism. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Katz, J. (1985). The sociopolitical nature of counseling.Counseling Psychologist, 13 615–624.
Keen, S. (1991).Fire in the belly. New York: Bantam Books.
Kimmel, M. S., & Messner, M. A. (Eds.). (1992).Men's lives. New York: MacMillan.
Kochman, T. (1981).Black and White styles in conflict. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Koslow, D., & Sallett, E. (1989).Crossing cultures in mental health. Washington, DC: International Society for Education, Training and Research (SIETAR).
Kunjufu, J. (1984).Developing positive self images and discipline in Black children. Chicago: African American Images.
Levant, R. F. (1992). Toward the reconstruction of masculinity.Journal of Family Psychology, 5 179–402.
Majors, R., & Billson, J. M. (1992).Cool pose: The dilemmas of Black manhood in America. New York: Lexington Books.
Marshall, R. (1988). Forward. In J. T. Gibbs (Ed.),Young, Black, and male in America: An endangered species. Dover, MA: Auburn House.
Martinez, R. (1987). Race, gender and self-esteem among youth.Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Science, 9 427–443.
McCall, N. (1994).Makes me wanna holler: A young Black man in America. New York: Random House.
Mendoza, R. H., & Martinez, J. L. (1981). The measurement of acculturation. In A. Baron, Jr. (Ed.),Explorations in Chicano psychology. New York: Praeger.
Moore, R., & Gillette, D. (1991).King warrior magician lover. San Francisco: Harper.
O'Hare, W., Pollard, K., Mann, T., & Kent, M. (1991). African—Americans in the 1990s.Population Bulletin, 46 19.
O'Neil, J,. Helms, B., & Gable, R. (1986). Gender Role Conflict Scale: College men's fear of femininity.Sex Roles, 14 335–350.
Pinderhughes, E. (1982). African—American families and the victim system. In M. J. McGoldrick, & J. K. Giordano (Eds.),Ethnicity and family therapy. New York: Guilford Press.
Schaffer, K. F. (1981).Sex roles and human behavior. Cambridge, MA: Winthrop Publishers.
Shakur, S. (1994). Monster: The autobiography of an L.A. gang member. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press.
Staples, B. (1987). A brother's murder. In E. Klein & D. Erikson (Eds.),About men: Reflections on the male experience. New York: Poseidon Press.
Staples, B. (1994).Parallel time. Growing up in Black and White. New York: Pantheon Books.
Tidwell, B., Kuumba, M., Jones, D., & Watson, B. (1993). Fast facts: African Americans in the 1990s. In B. Tidwell (Ed.),The state of Black America 1993. New York: National Urban League.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Harris, I., Torres, J.B. & Allender, D. The responses of African American men to dominant norms of masculinity within the United States. Sex Roles 31, 703–719 (1994). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01544288
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01544288