Abstract
Research in the area of learning strategies and styles of university students has led to many studies as well as to the development of many research tools for measuring learning, but without the necessary interrelationships among the tools or within the research. The aim of this study has been to examine the interdependence among the best-known tools coming from different theoretical bases. A sample of 991 university students in their first and last years, from ten different disciplines, completed four tests: ILP, LASSI, ASI and LSQ. The scales of each test, taken as the unit of analysis, were submitted to a factor analysis by the principal-components and the principal-factors methods. The latter method revealed an overarching structure composed of the following four factors: Traditional Study Methods; Deep Processing; Elaborative Processing; and General Learning Styles. These relationships confirmed the existence of three dimensions, or paths involved in learning, with clear motivational and approach elements, and also showed a separation between Deep Processing and the Deep Approach. Finally, we carried out principal-factor analyses of ASI and LASSI, obtaining two factors for each inventory.
Résumé
La recherche dans le domaine de stratégies et des styles d'apprentissage chez les étudiants universitaires à abouti à de nombreuses études et a developpé divers instruments de mesures d'apprentissage, mais san ce rapport indispensable entre études et entre instruments. Le but de cette recherche a été d'examiner l'interdepéndence entre les instruments les plus connus provenants de différentes théories.
Un echantillonage de 991 étudiants universitaires de première annèe, de dix disciplines différentes ont repondu à 4 tests: ILP, LASSI, ASI et LSQ. Les échelles de chaque test, prises comme unité d'analyse ont été soumises à une analyse factorielle d'après les méthodes de composantes principales et de facteurs principaux. Celle-ci revèle una structure commune composée des 4 facteurs suivants: Méthodes d'étude traditionelles, Traitement profond, Traitement élaboratif et Styles génériques d'apprentissage. Les rapports entre aux confirment l'existence de trois dimensions, impliquées dans l'apprentissage, avec des élèments de motivations et d'approches; et ils montrent aussi une séparation entre le Traitement profond et l'Approche profonde. Finalement, nous avons réalisé une analyse factorielle d'après le méthode de facteurs principaux pour les tests ASI et LASSI, obtenant deux facteurs pour chacun des ces tests.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adams, A., Carnine, D., and Gersten, R. (1985). ‘Instructional strategies for studying content area texts in the intermediate grades’,Reading Research Quarterly 18(1): 27–55.
Armbruster, B., and Anderson, T.H. (1981). “Research synthesis on study skills’,Educational Leadership 39: 154–156.
Biggs, J. B. (1976a). “Dimensions of study behavior: Another look at A.T.L.’,British Journal of Educational Psychology 46: 66–80.
Biggs, J. B. (1976b). ‘Faculty patterns in study behaviour’,Australian Journal of Psychology 22(2), 161–174.
Biggs J. B. (1978). ‘Individual and group differences in study processes’,British Journal of Educational Psychology 48, 266–279.
Biggs, J. B. (1979) ‘Individual differences in study processes and the quality of learning outcomes’,Higher Education 8, 381–394.
Biggs, J. (1988). ‘Approaches to learning an to essay writing’. En R. Schmeck (Ed.),Learning strategies and learning styles. New York: Plenum Press.
Cano, F., and Justicia, F. (in press). ‘Factores académicos, estrategias y estilos de aprendizaje’,Revista de Psicología General y Aplicada.
Craik, F. I. M., and Tulving, E. (1975). “Depth of processing and retention of words in episodic memory’,Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 104, 268–294.
Dansereau, D. F. (1985). ‘Learning strategy research’. En J. Segal, S. Chipman, y R. Glaser (Eds.),Thinking and learning skills, Vol 1: Relating instruction to research. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Ass.
Diaz, D. (1984). The identification of approaches to learning adopted by Venezuelan university students. Unpublished M.Sc. Thesis, University of Wales, Institute of Science and Technology, Cardiff.
Dillon, W. R., and Goldstein, M. (1984).Multivariate data analysis. Methods and applications. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Dixon, W. J. (Ed.) (1985).BMDP Statistical Software. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Entwistle, N. J. (1985 July).A model of the teaching-learning process derived from research on student learning. Paper presented at the international conference of cognitive processes in student learning. University of Lancaster, Lancaster, England.
Entwistle, N. J. (1988). ‘Motivational factors in students' approaches to learning’. In R. R. Schmeck (Ed.),Learning strategies and learning styles. New York: Plenum Press.
Entwistle, N., and Entwistle, D. (1970). ‘The relationship between personality, study methods and academic performance’,British Journal of Educational Psychology 40: 132–141.
Entwistle, N. J., and Ramsden, P. (1983).Understanding student learning. London: Croom Helm.
Entwistle, N., and Tait, H. (1990) ‘Approaches to learning, evaluations of teaching, and preferences for contrasting academic environments’,Higher Education 19: 169–194.
Entwistle, N. J., and Wilson, J. D. (1977).Degrees of excellence: the academic achievement game. Londres: Hodder and Stoughton.
Entwistle, N. J., and Waterston, S. (1988). ‘Approaches to studying and levels of processing in university students’,British Journal of Educational Psychology 58: 258–265.
Entwistle, N. J., Hanley, M., and Hounsell, D. J. (1979a) ‘Identifying distinctive approaches to studying’,Higher Education 8: 365–380.
Entwistle, N. J., Hanley, M., and Ratcliffe, G. (1979b). ‘Approaches to learning and levels of understanding’,British Journal of Educational Research 5: 99–114.
Entwistle, N. J., Thompson, J. B., and Wilson, J. D. (1974). ‘Motivation and study habits’,Higher Education 3: 379–396.
Gadzella, B. M., Ginther, D. W., & Williamson, J. D. (1986). ‘Differences in learning processes and academic achievement’,Perceptual and Moteros Skill, 62: 151–156.
Goldman, R., and Warren, R. (1972, April).Configuration in discriminant space: a heuristic approach to study techniques. Paper presented at the meeting of the Western Psychological Association. Portland.
Kember, D., and Gow, L. (1989). ‘A model of student approaches to learning encompassing ways to influence and change approaches’,Instructional Science 18: 263–288.
Kolb, D. A. (1976a).The learning style inventory: Technical manual. Boston: McBer.
Kolb, D. (1976b).Management and learning processes 18(3): 21–31.
Kolb, D. A. (1984).Experiential learning. Experience as the source of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, Inc.
Kolb, D. A., Rubin, I. M., and McIntyre, J. M., (1971).Organizational psychology. Engewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall. Spanish translation (1977), Madrid: Ediciones del Castillo.
Merrit, S. L., and Marshall, J. C. (1984). ‘Reliability and construct validity of ipsative and normative forms of the learning style inventory’,Educational and Psychological Measurement 44: 463–472.
Marshall, J. C., and Merrit, S. L. (1985). ‘Reliability and construct validity of altermate forms of the learning style inventory’,Educational and Psychological Measurement 45: 931–937.
Marshall, J. C., and Merritt, S. L. (1986). ‘Reliability and construct validity of the learning style questionnaire’,Educational and Psychological Measurement 46: 257–262.
Marton, F., and Säljö, R. (1976a). ‘On qualitative differences in learning. I — Outcome and process.British Journal of Educational Psychology 46: 4–11.
Marton, F., and Säljö, R. (1976b). ‘On qualitative differences in learning. II — Outocome as a function of the learner's conception of the task’,British Journal of Educational Psychology 46: 115–127.
Marton, F., and Säljö, R. (1984). ‘Approaches to learning’. In F. Marton, D. J. Hounsell and N. J. Entwistle (Eds.),The experience of learning. Edinburgh: Scotish Academic Press.
Marton, F., Hounsell, D. J., and Entwistle, N. J. (Eds.) (1984).The experience of learning. Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press.
Melton, A. W., and Martin, E. (Eds.). (1972).Coding processes in human memory. Washington, D.C.: Winston & Sons.
Newstead, S. (1992). ‘A study of two “quick-and-easy” methods of assessing individual differences in student learning’,British Journal of Educational Psyhology 62: 299–312.
Nie, N. H., Hull, C. H., Jenkins, J. G., Steinbrenner, K., and Bent, D. H. (1976).SPSS Statistical package for the Social Sciences. New York: McGraw-Hill.
O'Neil, H. F. Jr (1978).Learning strategies. New York: Academic Press.
O'Neil, H. F., and Spielberger, C. D. (1979).Cognitive and affective learning strategies. New York: Academic Press.
Paivio, A. (1971).Imagery and verbal processes. New York: Holt, Rinehart y Winston.
Pask, G. (1976). ‘Styles and strategies of learning’,British Journal of Educational Psychology 46: 128–148.
Ramsden, P. (1981).A study of the relationship between student learning and its academics context. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Lancaster.
Ronwer, W. D. Jr. (1984). ‘An invitation to an educational psychology of studying’,Educational Psychologist 19(1): 1–14.
Schmeck, R. R. (1983). ‘Learning styles of college students’. In R. F. Dillon and R. R. Schmeck (Eds.),Individual differences in cognition, Vol 1. New York: Academic Press.
Schmeck, R. (1988).Learning strategies and learning styles. New York: Plenum Press.
Schmeck, R. R., & Grove, E. (1979). ‘Academic achievement and individual differences in learning processes’,Applied Psychological Measurement 3(1): 43–49.
Schmeck, R. R., Ribich, F. D., and Ramanaiah, N. (1977). ‘Development of a self-report inventory for assessing individual differences in learning processes’,Applied Psychological Measurement 1: 413–431.
Schulte, A. C., and Weinstein, C. E. (1981, April).Inventories to assess cognitive learning strategies. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Educationnal Research Association, Los Angeles, CA.
Speth, C., and Brown, R. (1988). ‘Study approaches, processes and strategies: are three perspectives better than one?’British Journal of Educational Psychology 58: 247–257.
Svenson, L. (1977). ‘On qualitative difference in learning: III. — study skill and learning’,British Journal of Educational Psychology 47: 233–243.
Thomas, J. W., and Rohwer, W. D. Jr. (1986) ‘Academic studying: The role of learning strategies’,Educational Psychologist 21 (1&2): 19–41.
Tulving, E., and Danaldson, W. (Eds.) (1972).Organization of memory. New York: Academic Press.
Waterston, S. (1985).A phenomenal and numenal approach to student learning compared. Undergraduate dissertation, Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh.
Watkins, D. (1986). ‘Learning processes and back ground characteristics as predictors of tertiary grades’,Educational and Psychological Measurement 46(1): 199–203.
Weinstein, C. E. (1978). ‘Elaboration skill as a learning strategy’, In H. F. O'Neil, Jr.Learning strategies. New York: Academic Press.
Weinstein, C. E. (1987).Learning and study strategies inventory (LASSI) Clearwater, FL: H&H Publishing Company.
Weinstein, C. E., Goetz, E. T., and Alexander, P. A. (Eds.) (1988).Learning and study strategies: issues in assessment, instruction, and evaluation. New York: Academic Press.
Weinstein, C. E., and Mayer, R. E. (1986). ‘The teaching of learning strategies. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.),Handbook of research on teaching, 3rd Ed. New York: MacMillan Publishing Company.
Weinstein, C. E., Zimmerman, S. A., and Palmer, D. R. (1988). ‘Assessing learning strategies: The design and development of the LASSI’. In C. E. Weinstein, E. T. Goetz y P. A. Alexander (Eds.),Learning and study strategies. New York: Academic Press.
Weinstein, C. E., Underwood, V., Wicker, F. W., and Cubberly, W. E. (1979). ‘Cognitive learning strategies: verbal and imaginal elaboration’, In H. F. O'Neil, Jr., and C. D. Spielberger (Eds.),Cognitive and affective learning strategies. New York: Academic Press.
Weinstein, C. E., Wicker, F. W., Cubberly, W. E., Roney, L. K., and Underwood, V. L. (1980).Design and development of the Learning Activities Questionnaire. (Tech. Rep. No 459.). Alexandria, Va: U.S. Army Resarch Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.
Wittrock, M. C. (1988). ‘A constructive review of research on learning strategies’. In C. E. Weinstein, E. T. Goetz and P. A. Alexander (Eds.),Learning and study strategies. New York: Academic Press.
Wolfenden, M. H., and Pumfrey, P. D. (1985). ‘Students' study behaviour, a review of research Part A’,Educational Psychology in Practice 1(3): 91–98.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Cano-Garcia, F., Justicia-Justicia, F. Learning strategies, styles and approaches: An analysis of their interrelationships. High Educ 27, 239–260 (1994). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01384091
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01384091