Abstract
Despite the accumulation of a large body of research concerning effective sex equity practices in math and science, the lack of change in educational procedures suggests the need to reexamine the role of research in policy and program planning. This paper reviews the current research on sex equity in mathematics and science education, focusing on research in the categories of educator-student interaction, instructional context, and macrolevel demographics. Existing applications of current research to mathematics and science education programs are examined at regional, state, district, and individual school levels. Recommendations for future directions in policy and research are made, emphasizing the gaps in knowledge on each side. The paper ends with specific suggestions for strengthening the links between research and policy in the area of sex equity.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ames, C. (1988). Competitive, cooperative, and individualistic goal structures: A cognitive-motivational analysis. In Ames, R., and Ames, C. (eds.),Research on Motivation in Education, Vol. 1 Academic Press, Orlando, Florida, pp. 177–277.
Armstrong, J. (1980).Achievement and participation of women in mathematics. Final report to the National Institute of Education, Washington, D.C.
Becker, J. R. (1981). Differential treatment of females and males in mathematics classes.J. Res. Math. Educat. 12: 40–54.
Benbow, C. P., and Minor, L. L. (1986). Mathematically talented males and females and achievement in the high school sciences.Am. Educat. Res. J. 23: 425–436.
Benbow, C. P., and Stanley, J. C. (1980). Sex differences in mathematical ability: Fact or artifact?Science 210: 1262–1264.
Betz, N. E., and Hackett, G. (1983). The relationship of mathematics self-efficacy expectations to the selection of science-based college majors.J. Voc. Behav. 23: 329–245.
Brody, L., and Fox, L. H. (1980). An accelerated intervention for mathematically gifted girls. In Fox, L. H., Brody, L., and Tobin, D. (eds.),Woman and the Mathematical Mystique Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland.
Bureau of the Census (1984).Detailed Occupation of the Experienced Civilian Labor Force by Sex for the United States and Regions: 1980–1970 U. S. Dept. of Commerce, Washington, D.C.
Buswell, C. (1981). Sexism in school routines and classroom practices.Durham and Newcastle Res. Rev. 9: 195–200.
California Basic Educational Data System (1981).Student Enrollment by Subject in California Public Schools for 1980–1981 California State Department of Education, Sacramento.
Casserley, P. (1975). An assessment of factors affecting female participation in advanced placement programs in mathematics, chemistry, and physics. Report to the National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C.
Chipman, S. F., Brush, L. R., and Wilson, D. M. (1985).Women and Mathematics: Balancing the Equation Erlbaum, Hillsdale, New Jersey.
Clark, D. L., and Astuto, T. A. (1986). The significance and permanence of changes in federal education policy.Educat. Res. 15: 4–13.
Crossman, M. (1987). Teachers' interactions with girls and boys in science lessons. In Kelly, A. (ed.),Science for Girls? Open University Press, Milton Keynes, England, pp. 58–65.
Delamont, S. (1980).Sex Roles and the School Methuen, London.
Diamond, E. E., and Tittle, C. K. (1985). Sex equity in testing. In Klein, S. S. (ed.),Handbook for Achieving Sex Equity Through Education Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland, pp. 167–188.
Donlon, T. F., Ekstrom, R. B., and Lockheed, M. E. (1979). The consequences of sex bias in the content of major achievement test batteries.Meas. Eval. Guid. 11: 202–216.
Eccles, J. S. (1984). Sex differences in mathematics participation. In Steinkamp, M. and Maehr, M. L. (eds.),Advances in Motivation and Achievement, Vol. 2 University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois, pp. 367–420.
Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., and Meece, J. L. (1984). Sex differences in achievement: A test of alternate theories.J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 46: 26–43.
Eccles, J. S., Mac Iver, D., and Lange, L. (1986). Classroom practices and motivation to study math. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, California.
Eccles, J. S., Flanagan, C., Goldsmith, R., Jacobs, J., Jaryaratne, T., Wigfield, A., and Yee, D. (1987). Parents as socializers of achievement attitudes. Paper presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Baltimore, Maryland.
Eccles, J. S., and Hoffman, L. W. (1984). Socialization and the maintainence of sex-segregated labor market. In Stevenson, H. W., and Siegel, A. E. (eds.),Research in Child Development and Social Policy, Vol. 1 University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois.
Ethington, C. A., and Wolfle, L. M. (1986). Women's selection of quantitative undergraduate fields of study: Direct and indirect influences.Am. Educat. Res. J. 25: 157–176.
Fennema, E., and Sherman, J. (1977). Sex-related differences in mathematics achievement, spatial visualization, and affective factors.Am. Educat. Res. J. 14: 51–71.
Fennema, E. (1986). Autonomous learning behaviors and classroom environments. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, California.
Fottler, M. D., and Bain, T. (1984). Realism of occupational choice among high school seniors: Implications for quality of work life.J. Occupat. Behav. 5: 237–251.
Giese, E. (1980). You can see the cat walking...A report on the findings of the Michigan Project on Equal Education Rights, Michigan PEER, Milford, Michigan.
Good, T. L., and Brophy, J. E. (1978).Looking in Classrooms Harper & Row, New York.
Hackett, G. (1985). Role of mathematics self-efficacy in the choice of math-related majors of college women and men: A path analysis.J. Counsel. Psychol. 32: 47–56.
Hall, E. R., and Post-Kammer, P. (1987). Black mathematics and science majors: Why so few?Vocat. Guid. Q. 35: 206–219.
Harvey, G., and Klein, S. S. (1985). Understanding and measuring equity in education: A conceptual model.J. Educat. Eq. Lead. 5: 145–168.
Hill, J. P., and Lynch, M. E. (1983). The intensification of gender-related role expectations during early adolescence. In Brooks-Gunn, J., and Peterson, A. (eds).Girls at Puberty Plenum, New York, pp. 201–228.
Kelly, A. (1987). Why girls don't do science. In Kelly, A. (ed.),Science for Girls? Open University Press, Milton Keynes, England, pp. 12–17.
Kelly, A., Whyte, J., and Smail, B. (1985). Girls into science and technology: Final report. Department of Sociology, University of Manchester, Manchester, England.
Klein, S. S. (ed.) (1985).Handbook for Achieving Sex Equity Through Education Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland.
Klein, S. S., and Simonson, J. (1984). Increasing sex equity in education: Roles for psychologists.Am. Psychol. 39: 1187–1192.
Klein, S. S., Russo, L. N., Tittle, C. K., Schmuck, P. A., Campbell, P. B., Blackwell, P. J., Murray, S. R., Dwyer, C. A. Lockheed, M. E., Landers, B. and Simonson, J. R. (1985). Summary and recommendations for the continued achievement of sex equity in and through education. In Klein, S. S. (ed.),Handbook for Achieving Sex Equity Through Education Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland, pp. 439–519.
Kreinberg, N. (1981). 1,000 teachers later: Women, mathematics, and the components of change.Pub. Affairs. Rep. 22: 1–7.
Leinhardt, G., Seewald, A. M., and Engle, M. (1979). Learning what's taught: Sex difference in instruction.J. Educat. Psychol. 71: 432–439.
Linn, M. C., and Peterson, A. C. (1985). Facts and assumptions about the nature of sex differences. In Klein, S. S. (ed.),Handbook for Achieving Sex Equity Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland, pp. 53–77.
Linn, E. (1984).Math Equity: Planned Change Model, Center for Sex Equity in the Schools, School of Education, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Lockheed, M. E., and Harris, A. M. (1978). The effects of equal cross-sex contact on students' sex stereotyped attitudes and behavior. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Education Research Association, Toronto.
Lockheed, M. E., and Harris, A. M. (1982). Classroom interaction and opportunities for cross-sex peer learning in science.J. Early Adol. 2: 135–143.
Marrett, C. (1986). On minority females in precollege math. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, California.
Marshall, S. P., and Ssmith, S. D. (1987). Sex differences in learning mathematics: A longitudinal study with item and error analyses.J. Educat. Psychol. 79: 372–383.
McCarthy, K. (1975). Sex bias in tests of mathematical aptitude. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, City University of New York, New York.
McDonald, S. C. (1981). An inquiry into the resilience of Title IX reforms at the local level. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Los Angeles, California.
National Research Council (1980).Science and Engineering Doctorates in the United States National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.
National Science Foundation (1984).Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C.
National Science Foundation (1985).Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C.
Parsons, J. E., Kaczala, C., and Meece, J. (1982). Socialization of achievement attitudes and beliefs: Classroom influences.Child Devel. 53: 322–339.
Peterson, P. L., and Fennema, E. (1985). Effective teaching, student engagement in classroom activities, and sex-related differences in learning mathematics.Am. Educat. Res. J. 22: 309–335.
Roberts, L. R. (1986). Gender differences in patterns of achievement and adjustment during early adolescence. Paper presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Adolescence, Madison, Wisconsin.
Rosser, P. (1987).Sex Bias in College Admissions Tests: Why Women Lose Out National Center for Fair and Open Testing, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Rosser, P. (1988). Girls, boys, and the SAT: Can we even the score?NEA Today 48–53.
Sadker, M., and Sadker, D. (1986). Sexism in the classroom: From grade school to graduate school.Phi Delta Kappa 67: 512–515.
Schmuck, P. A., Adkison, J. A., Peterson, B., Bailey, S., Glick, G. S., Klein, S. S., McDonald, S., Schubert, J., and Tarason, S. L. (1985). Administrative strategies for institutionalizing sex equity in education and the role of government. In Klein, S. S. (edd.),Handbook for Achieving Sex Equity Through Education Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland, pp. 95–123.
Scott, K. P., and Schau, C. G. (1985). Sex equity and sex bias in instructional materials. In Klein, S. S. (ed.),Handbook for Achieving Sex Equity Through Education Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland, pp. 218–232.
Simmons, R. G., Rosenberg, F., and Rosenberg, G. (1973). Disturbance in the self-image at adolescence.Am. Sociol. Rev. 38: 553–568.
Smail, B. (1984). Girl-friendly science. Reprinted in Kelly, A. (ed.),Science for Girls? Open University Press, Milton Keynes, England, pp. 80–88.
Smith, S. (1984). Single sex setting. In Deem, R. (ed.),Co-education Reconsidered Open University Press, Milton Keynes, England.
Smith, W. S., Molitor, L. L., Nelson, B. J., and Matthew, C. E. (1982).Career Oriented Modules to Explore Topics in Science University of Kansas, School of Education, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Lawrence, Kansas.
Smithers, A., and Collings, J. (1981). Factors differentially affecting the science subject preferences, choices and attitudes of girls and boys. In Kelly, A. (ed.),The Missing Half: Girls and Science Education Manchester University Press, Manchester, England.
Spear, M. G. (1984). The biasing influence of pupil sex in a science marking exercise.Res. Sci. Technol. Educat. 2: 55–60.
Speizer, J. J. (1981). Role models, mentors, and sponsors: The elusive concepts.Signs 6: 692–712.
Stage, E. K., Krienberg, N. L., Eccles, J. S., and Becker, J. R. (1985). Increasing the participation and achievement of girls and women in mathematics, science, and engineering. In Klein, S. S. (ed.),Handbook for Achieving Sex Equity Through Education Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland, pp. 237–268.
Stanic, G. M. A., and Reyes, L. H. (1986). Gender and race differences in mathematics: A case study of a seventh-grade classroom. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, California.
Tidball, M. E., and Kistiakowsky, V. (1976). Baccalaureate origins of American scientists and scholars.Science. 193: 646–652.
Tobin, D., and Fox, L. H. (1980). Career interests and career education: A key to change. In Fox, L. H., Brody, L., and Tobin, D. (eds.),Women and the Mathematical Mystique Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland.
U.S. Department of Education (1984).Science and Mathematics Education in American High Schools: Results from the High School and Beyond Study National Center for Education Statistics, Washington, D.C., NCES 34-211b.
U.S. Department of Education, National Commission on Excellence in Education (1983).A nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
Van Voorhees, B. (1985).The Academy in Mentoring Eastern Michigan University, College of Education, Ypsilanti, Michigan.
West, J., and Gross, S. (1986). Performance of women and minorities in mathematics: A large school system perspective. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, California.
West, J., Miller, W., and Diodata, L. (1985).An Analysis of Course-Taking Patterns as Related to Student Characteristics National Center for Education Statistics, Washington, D.C.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Jacobs, J.E., Wigfield, A. Sex equity in mathematics and science education: Research-policy links. Educ Psychol Rev 1, 39–56 (1989). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01326549
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01326549