Abstract
Despite the epidemiological evidence of a correlation between ethanol abuse and hepatocellular carcinoma, some of the results of experimental and clinical studies remain controversial. Apart from inducing cirrhosis, which may be viewed as a precancerous liver lesion, ethanol may act as a cocarcinogen. Most investigations on this topic have focused on two aspects: ethanol's capacity to induce the cytochrome P-450-dependent microsomal biotransformation system and its interference with at least one DNA repair mechanism. Ethanol exposure enhances the capacity of mixed function oxidases to activate many chemical carcinogens, such as dimethylnitrosamine (DMN). On the other hand, ethanol exposure fails to influence DMN-induced liver carcinogenesis. The capacity of alcohol to inhibit DMN-demethylase activity has not been clearly demonstrated in experiments carried out with human tissue. In conclusion, both the effects of ethanol and their underlying mechanisms as regards liver carcinogenesis are open to debate. The link between ethanol abuse and hepatocellular carcinoma appears to be mediated mainly by its capacity to induce cirrhosis.
References
Tuyns AJ, Pequignot G, Jensen OM: Le cancer de l'oesophage en Ille-et-Vilaine en fonction des niveaux de consommation d'alcool et de tabac. Des risques qui se multiplient. Bull Cancer 64:45–60, 1977
McMichael AJ: Increases in laryngeal cancer in Britain and Australia in relation to alcohol and tobacco consumption trends. Lancet 1:1244–1247, 1978
Keller AZ: Liver cirrhosis, tobacco, alcohol and cancer among blacks. J Natl Med Assoc 70:575–580, 1978
Austin H, Delzell E, Grufferman S, Levine R, Morrison AS, Stolley PD, Cole P: A case-control study of hepato-cellular carcinoma and the hepatitis B virus, cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption. Cancer Res 46:962–966, 1986
Stemhagen A, Slade J, Altman R, Bill J: Occupational risk factors and liver cancer in New Jersey. A retrospective case-control study of primary liver cancer. Am J Epidemiol 117:443–454, 1983
Nanji AA, French SW: Hepatocellular carcinoma. Relationship to wine and pork consumption. Cancer 56:2711–2712, 1985
Trichopoulos D, Dat NE, Kaklamani E, Tzonou A, Munoz N, Zavitzanos X, Kuomantaki Y, Trichopoulou A: Hepatitis B virus, tobacco smoking and ethanol consumption in the etiology of hepatocellular carcinoma. Int J Cancer 39:45–49, 1987
Shibata A, Hirohata T, Toshima H, Tashiro H: The role of drinking and cigarette smoking in the excess deaths from liver cancer. Gann 77:287–295, 1986
Norredam K: Primary carcinoma of the liver. Acta Pathol Microbiol Scand 87:227–236, 1979
Jensen OM: Cancer morbidity and causes of death among Danish brewery workers. Int J Cancer 23:454–463, 1979
Hakulinen T, Lehtimaki L, Lehtonen M, Teppo L: Cancer morbidity among two male cohorts with increased alcohol consumption in Finland. J Natl Cancer Inst 52:1711–1714, 1974
Qiao ZK, Halliday ML, Rankin JG, Coates RA: Relationship between hepatitis B surface antigen prevalence, per capita alcohol consumption and primary liver cancer death rate in 30 countries. J Clin Epidemiol 41(8):787–792, 1988
Lieber CS, Seitz HK, Garro AJ, Worner TM: Alcohol as a cocarcinogen.In Frontiers of Liver Disease. PD Berk, TC Chalmers (eds). Stuttgart, Thieme, 1981, pp 320–335
Gottfried EB, Steller R, Paronetto F, Lieber CS: Spontaneous regression of hepatocellular carcinoma. Gastroenterology 82:770–774, 1982
Peters RL: Pathology of hepatocellular carcinoma.In Hepatocellular Carcinoma. K Okuda, RL Peters (eds). New York, Wiley, 1976, pp 107–168.
Lee FI: Cirrhosis and hepatoma in alcoholic. Gut 7:77–85, 1966
Tuyns AJ, Pequignot G, Gignoux M, Valla A: Cancer of the digestive tract, alcohol and tobacco. Int J Cancer 30:9–11, 1982
Bartock I, Rememar E, Toth J: Clinicopathological studies of liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma in a general hospital. Hum Pathol 12:794–803, 1981
Chan CH: Primary carcinoma of the liver. Med Clin North Am 59:989–994, 1975
Shikata T: Primary liver carcinoma and liver cirrhosis.In Hepatocellular Carcinoma. K Okuda, RL Peters (eds). New York, Wiley, 1976, pp 53–72
Farinati F, Chiaramonte M, Rugge M, Salvagnini M, Zagolin M, Guido M, Naccarato R: Hepatocellular carcinoma: Search for strategies in early diagnosis.In Pathophysiology of the Liver. P Gentilini, MU Dianzani (eds). New York, Elsevier, 1988, pp 217–226
Brechot C, Nalpas B, Courouce AM, Duhamel G, Gallard P, Carnot F, Tiollais P, Bertheloth P: Evidence that hepatitis B virus has a role in liver cell carcinoma in alcoholic liver disease. N Engl J Med 36:1384–1387, 1982
Blumberg BS, London WT: Hepatitis B virus and the prevention of primary cancer of the liver. J Natl Cancer Inst 74:267–273, 1985
Okuda K: Primary liver cancer. Quadriennal review lecture. Dig Dis Sci 9:133–146, 1986
Hino O, Kitagawa T, Sugano H: Relationship between serum and histochemical markers for hepatitis B virus and rate of viral integration in hepatocellular carcinoma in Japan. Int J Cancer 35:5–10, 1985
Imazeki F, Omata M, Yokosuka O, Okuda K: Integration of hepatitis B virus DNA in hepatocellular carcinoma. Cancer 58:1055–1060, 1986
Goudeau A, Maupas P, Dubois F, Coursaget P, Bougnoux P: Hepatitis B infection in alcoholic liver disease and primary hepatocellular carcinoma in France. Progr Med Virol 27:26–34, 1981
Gluud C, Aldershville T, Henriksen J, Kryger P, Mathieson L: Hepatitis B and A virus antibodies in alcoholic steatosis and cirrhosis. J Clin Pathol 35:693–697, 1982
Ohnishi K, Iida S, Iwana S, Gato N, Nomura F, Takashi M, Mishima A, Kono K, Kimura K, Musha H, Kotota K, Okuda K: The effect of chronic habitual alcohol intake on the development of liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Cancer 49:672–677, 1982
Walter E, Blum HE, Meier P, Huonker M, Schmid M, Maier KP, Offensperger WB, Offensperger S, Gerok W: Hepatocellular carcinoma in alcoholic liver disease: no evidence for a pathogenetic role of hepatitis B virus infection. Hepatology 8(4):745–748, 1988
Chiaramonte M, Farinati F, Fagiuoli S, Ongaro G, Anneloni V, Vicarioto M, Naccarato R: Antibody to hepatitis C virus in hepatocellular carcinoma. Lancet 1:301–302, 1990
Bruix J, Barrera JM, Calvet X, Ercilla G, Costa J, Sanches JM, Ventura M, Vall M, Bruguera M, Bru C, Castillo R, Rodes J: Prevalence of antibodies to hepatitis C Virus in Spanish patients with hepatocellular carcinoma and cirrhosis. Lancet 2:1004–1006, 1989
Ketcham AS, Wexler H, Mantel N: Effects of alcohol in mouse neoplasia. Cancer Res 23:667–670, 1963
Schottenfeld D: Alcohol as a co-factor in the etiology of cancer. Cancer 43:1962–1966, 1979
McCoy GD, Hecht SS, Katayama S, Wynder EL: Differential effects of chronic ethanol consumption on the carcinogenicity of N-nitrosopyrrolidine and N-nitrosonornicotina in male Syrian golden hamsters. Cancer Res 41:2849–2854, 1981
Radike MJ, Stemmer KL, Bingham E: Effect of ethanol on vinychloride carcinogenesis. Environ Health Perspect 4:59–63, 1981
Lieber CS, De Carli LM: The feeding of ethanol: A decade of application and a 1982 update. Clin Exp Res 6:523–531, 1982
Kuratsune M, Kohohi S, Horie A, Nishizumi M: Test of alcoholic beverages and ethanol solutions for carcinogenicity and tumor-promoting activity. Gann 62:395–405, 1965
Walker EA, Castegnaro M, Garren L, Touissaint G, Kowalski B: Intake of volatile nitrosamines from consumption of alcohols. J Natl Cancer Inst 63:947–951, 1979
Masuda Y, Mori K, Hirohata T, Karatzune M: Carcinogenesis in the esophagus. III Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and phenois in whiskey. Gann 57:549–557, 1966
Cunningham HM, Pontetract R: Asbestos fibers in beverages and drinking water. Nature 232:332–333, 1971
Biles B, Emerson TR: Examination of fibers in beer. Nature 219:93–94, 1968
Lieber CS, Garro AJ, Leo MA, Mak KM, Worner T: Alcohol and cancer. Hepatology 6:1005–1019, 1986
Pottern LM, Morris LE, Blot WJ, Ziegler RG, Fraumeni JF: Esophageal cancer among black men in Washington, D.C.I. Alcohol, tobacco and other risk factors. J Natl Cancer Inst 67:777–783, 1981
Ziegler RG, Morris LE, Blot WJ, Pottern LM, Hoover R, Fraumeni JF: Esophageal cancer among black men in Washington D.C. II. Role of nutrition. J Natl Cancer Inst 67:1199–1206, 1981
Wynder EL, Hultberg S, Jacobson F, Bros IJ: Environmental factors in cancer of the upper alimentary tract: Swedish study with special reference to Plummer-Vinson (Paterson-Kely) syndrome. Cancer 10:470–487, 1957
Kmet J, Mahboudi E: Esophageal cancer in the Caspian littoral of Iran: initial studies. Sciences 175:846–853, 1972
Gabriel GN, Schrager TF, Newberne PM: Zinc deficiency, alcohol and retinoid: association with oesophageal cancer in rats. J Natl Cancer Inst 68:785–789, 1982
Vallee BC, Wacher WE, Bartholomay AF: Zinc metabolism in hepatic disfunction. I serum zinc concentrations in Laenneo's cirrhosis and their validation by sequential analysis. N Engl J Med 255:403–408, 1956
Sullivan JF, Lankford HG: Urinary excretion of zinc in alcoholism and post alcoholic cirrhosis. Am J Clin Nutr 10:153–157, 1962
Farinati F, Cardin F, Di Mario F, Costa F, Scapolo M, Venturi Pasini C, Bortolami M, De Lazzari F, Naccarato R: Genetic, dietary and environmental factors in the pathogenesis of gastric cancer. Study of a high incidence family. Ital J Gastroenterol 19:321–324, 1987
Leo MA, Lieber CS: Hepatic vitamin A depletion in alcoholic liver injury in man. N Engl J Med 307:597–601, 1982
Leo MA, Lieber CS: Interaction of ethanol with vitamin A. Alcoholism. Clin Exp Res 7:15–21, 1983
Smith FR, Goodman DS: The effect of disease of the liver, thyroid and kidneys on the transport of vitamin A in human plasma. J Clin Invest 50:2426–2436, 1971
Berenyi MR, Staus B, Cruz D:In vitro andin vivo studies of cellular immunity in alcoholic cirrhosis. Am J Dig Dis 19:199–205, 1974
Bernstein IM, Webster KE, Williams RC Jr, Strikland RG: Reduction in circulating T lymphocytes in alcoholic liver disease. Lancet 2:488–489, 1974
Seitz HK, Garro AJ, Lieber CS: Sex dependent effect of chronic ethanol consumption in rats on hepatic microsome mediated mutagenicity of benzo(a)pyrene. Cancer Lett 13:97–102, 1981
Seitz HK, Garro AJ, Lieber CS: Effect of chronic ethanol ingestion on intestinal metabolism and mutagenicity of benzo(a)pyrene. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 85:1061–1066, 1978
Seitz HK, Garro AJ, Lieber CS: Enhanced pulmonary and intestinal activation of procarcinogens and mutagens after chronic ethanol consumption in the rat. Eur J Clin Invest 11:33–38, 1981
Farinati F, Zhou ZC, Bellah J, Lieber CS, Garro AJ: Effect of chronic ethanol consumption on activation of nitrosopyrolidine to a mutagen by rta upper alimentary tract, lung and hepatic tissue. Drug Metab Dispos 13:210–214, 1985
Garro AJ, Seitz HK, Lieber CS: Enhancement of dimethylnitrosamine metabolism and activation to a mutagen following chronic ethanol conumption. Cancer Res 41:120–124, 1981
Schwartz M, Appel KE, Schrenk K, Kunz W: Effect of ethanol on microsomal metabolism of dimethylnitrosamine. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 97:233–240, 1980
Griciute L, Castegnaro M, Bereziat JC: Influence of ethyl alcohol on carcinogenesis withN-nitrose-dimethylamine. Cancer Lett 13:345–352, 1981
Teschke R, Minzlaff M, Oldiges H, Frenzel H: Effect of chronic alcohol consumption on tumor incidence due to dimethylnitrosamine administration. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 106:58–64, 1983
Tomera JF, Skipper PI, Wishnok JS, Tannenbaum SR, Brunengraber H: Inhibition ofN-nitrosamine metabolism by ethanol and other inhibitors in the isolated, perfused rat liver. Carcinogenesis 5:113–116, 1984
Swann PF, Coe AM, Mace R: Ethanol and dimethylnitrosamine and diethylnitrosamine metabolism and disposition in the rat. Possible relevance to the influence of ethanol on human cancer incidence. Carcinogenesis 5:1337–1343, 1984
Lieber CS, Garro AJ, Leo MA, Mak KM, Worner T: Alcohol and cancer. Hepatology 6:1005–1019, 1986
Zordan M, Farinati F, Nitti D, Levis AG, Naccarato R: Normal and pathological human liver dimethylnitrosamine demethylase activity and capacity for 2-aminofluorene and nitrosopyrrolidine activationin vitro. Hum Toxicol 8:164–165, 1989
Obidoa O, Okolo TC: Effect of ethanol administration on the metabolism of aflatoxin B1. Biochem Med 22:145–148, 1979
Mendenhall CL, Chedid LA: Peliosis hepatitis: its relationshp to chronic alcoholism, aflatoxin B1 and carcinogenesis in male Holtzman rats. Dig Dis Sci 25:587–592, 1980
Columbano A, Rajalakashmi S, Sarma DSR: Requirements of cell proliferation for the initiation of liver carcinogenesis as assayed by three different procedures. Cancer Res 41:2079–2083, 1981
Takada A, Jinichi N, Takase S, Matzuda Y: Effects of ethanol on experimental carcinogenesis. Hepatology 6:65–72, 1986
Guechot J, Peigney N, Ballet F, Vaubourdolle M, Giboudeau J, Poupon R: Sex hormone imbalance in male alcoholic cirrhotic patients with and without hepatocellular carcinoma. Cancer 62:760–762, 1988
Kohigashi K, Fukuda Y, Imura H: Estrogen receptors in hepatocellular carcinoma: is endocrine therapy for hepatocellular carcinoma likely to be effective. Gastroenterol Jpn 22:322–330, 1987
Van Thiel DH, Lester R: The effect of chronic alcohol abuse on sexual function. Clin Endocrinol Metab 8:499–451, 1979
Eagon PK, Porter LE, Francavilla A, Dileo A, Van Thiel DH: Estrogen and androgen receptors in liver: their role in liver disease and regeneration. Sem Liver Dis 5:59–69, 1985
Van Thiel DH, Gavaler JS: Ethanol and the endocrine system.In Alcohol-Related-Diseases in Gastroenterology, HK Seitz, et al (eds). Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 1985, pp 324–331
Garro AJ, Espina N, Farinati F, Salvagnini M: The effects of chronic ethanol consumption on carcinogen metabolism and on O6-methylguanine transferase activity-mediated repair of alkylated DNA. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 10:73s-77s, 1987
Farinati F, Espina N, Lieber CS, Garro AJ:In vivo inhibition by chronic ethanol exposure of O6-methylguanine transferase activity and DNA repair. Ital J Gastroenterol 17:48–49, 1985
Espina J, Lima V, Lieber CS, Garro AJ:In vitro andin vivo inhibitory effect of ethanol and acetaldehyde on O6-methylguanine transferase. Carcinogenesis 761–766, 1988
Farinati F, Salvagnini M, Garro AJ, Naccarato R: Ethanol and carcinogenesis: promoter, co-carcinogen or innocent bystander? Ital J Gastroenterol 20:322–330, 1988
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Additional information
Under the Auspices of the “R. Farini Association for Gastroenterological Research”.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Naccarato, R., Farinati, F. Hepatocellular carcinoma, alcohol, and cirrhosis: Facts and hypotheses. Digest Dis Sci 36, 1137–1142 (1991). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01297461
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01297461