Skip to main content
Log in

Research issues in covert conditioning

  • Published:
Cognitive Therapy and Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The present paper discusses research issues pertaining to the conceptualization, methodology, and clinical utility of covert conditioning techniques. The conceptual issues include the problems of extrapolating laboratory concepts and procedures to covert conditioning techniques and the evidence pertaining to the viability of such extrapolations. The methodological issues address the nature of imagery processes and the importance of assessing ongoing imagery to ensure that client imagery follows the scenes described by the therapist and to discover imagery processes that may enhance treatment. In general, several basic research questions need to be addressed pertaining to the theoretical basis of covert conditioning techniques, a description of what actually occurs in imagery on the part of the client, and whether select techniques should serve as a treatment of choice when other options are available.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

Reference Notes

  • Cautela, J. R.Covert modeling. Paper presented at meeting of the Association for Advancement of Behavior Therapy, Washington, D.C., September 1971.

  • Cautela, J. R.Covert response cost. Unpublished manuscript, Boston College, 1974.

  • LoPiccolo, J.Effective components of systematic desensitization. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Yale University, 1969.

  • Strahley, D. F.Systematic desensitization and counterphobic treatment of an irrational fear of snakes. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Tennessee, 1965.

References

  • Ascher, L. M., & Cautela, J. R. Covert negative reinforcement: An experimental test.Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 1972,3 1–5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ashem, B., & Donner, L. Covert sensitization with alcoholics: A controlled replication.Behaviour Research and Therapy 1968,6 7–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A.Principles of behavior modification. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1969.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A., Blanchard, E. B., & Ritter, B. Relative efficacy of desensitization and modeling approaches for inducing behavioral, affective, and attitudinal changes.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1969,13 173–199.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barrett, C. L. “Runaway imagery” in systematic desensitization therapy and implosive therapy.Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice 1968,7 233–235.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, E. B. Relative contributions of modeling, informational influence, and physical contact in extinction of phobic behavior.Journal of Abnormal Psychology 1970,76 55–61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, E. B., & Draper, D. O. Treatment of a rodent phobia by covert reinforcement: A single subject experiment.Behavior Therapy 1973,4 559–564.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boudewyns, P. A. Comparison of the effects of stress vs. relaxation instruction on the finger temperature response.Behavior Therapy 1976,7 54–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cautela, J. R. A behavior therapy treatment of pervasive anxiety.Behaviour Research and Therapy 1966,4 99–109.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cautela, J. R. Covert sensitization.Psychological Record 1967,20 459–468.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cautela, J. R. Covert negative reinforcement.Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 1970,1 273–278. (a)

    Google Scholar 

  • Cautela, J. R. Covert reinforcement.Behavior Therapy 1970,1 33–50. (b)

    Google Scholar 

  • Cautela, J. R. Covert conditioning. In A. Jacobs & L. B. Sachs (Eds.),The psychology of private events: Perspectives on covert response systems. New York: Academic Press, 1971. (a)

    Google Scholar 

  • Cautela, J. R. Covert extinction.Behavior Therapy 1971,2 192–200. (b)

    Google Scholar 

  • Cautela, J. R. Rationale and procedures for covert conditioning. In R. D. Rubin, H. Fensterheim, J. D. Henderson, & L. P. Ullmann (Eds.),Advances in behavior therapy. New York: Academic Press, 1972.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cautela, J. R., & Kastenbaum, R. A reinforcement survey schedule for use in therapy, training, and research.Psychological Reports 1967,20 1115–1130.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crowe, M. J., Marks, I. M., Agras, W. S., & Leitenberg, H. Time-limited desensitization, implosion and shaping for phobic patients: A crossover study.Behaviour Research and Therapy 1972,10 319–328.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, A., & Denny, D. R. Covert sensitization and information in the reduction of nailbiting.Behavior Therapy 1976,7 512–518.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, D., McLemore, C. W., & London, P. The role of visual imagery in desensitization.Behaviour Research and Therapy 1970,8 11–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davison, G. C., & Wilson, G. T. Processes of fear-reduction in systematic desensitization: Cognitive and social reinforcement factors in humans.Behavior Therapy 1973,4 1–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Euse, F. J., & Haney, J. N. Image clarity, controllability, and emotional intensity: Correlations with introversion, neuroticism, and anxiety.Perceptual and Motor Skills 1975,40 443–447.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flannery, R. B., Jr. A laboratory analogue of two covert reinforcement procedures.Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 1972,3 171–177.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foreyt, J. P., & Hagen, R. L. Covert sensitization: Conditioning or suggestion?Journal of Abnormal Psychology 1973,82 17–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, P. H. The effects of modeling and role-playing on assertive behavior. In R. D. Rubin, H. Fensterheim, A. A. Lazarus, & C. M. Franks (Eds.),Advances in behavior therapy. New York: Academic Press, 1971.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garfield, Z. H., Darwin, P. L., Singer, B. A., & McBrearty, J. F. Effects of “in vivo” training on experimental desensitization of a phobia.Psychological Reports 1967,20 515–519.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haney, J. N., & Euse, F. J. Skin conductance and heart rate responses to neutral, positive, and negative imagery: Implications for covert behavior therapy procedures.Behavior Therapy 1976,7 494–503.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hurley, A. D. Covert reinforcement: The contribution of the reinforcing stimulus to treatment outcome.Behavior Therapy 1976,7 374–378.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kazdin, A. E. Covert modeling, model similarity, and reduction of avoidance behavior.Behavior Therapy 1974,5 325–340.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kazdin, A. E. Covert modeling, imagery assessment, and assertive behavior.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1975,43 716–724.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kazdin, A. E. Assessment of imagery during covert modeling treatment of assertive behavior.Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 1976,7 213–219.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kazdin, A. E., & Wilcoxon, L. A. Systematic desensitization and nonspecific treatment effects: A methodological evaluation.Psychological Bulletin 1976,83 729–758.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ladouceur, R. An experimental test of the learning paradigm of covert positive reinforcement in deconditioning anxiety.Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 1974,5 3–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lang, P. J. The application of psychophysiological methods to the study of psychotherapy and behavior modification. In A. E. Bergin & S. L. Garfield (Eds.),Handbook of psychotherapy and behavior change: An empirical analysis. New York: Wiley, 1971.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lang, P. J., Melamed, B. G., & Hart, J. A psychophysiological analysis of fear modification using an automated desensitization procedure.Journal of Abnormal Psychology 1970,76 220–234.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mahoney, M. J.Cognition and behavior modification. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Ballinger, 1974.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marks, I. M. Behavioral treatments of phobic and obsessive-compulsive disorders: A critical appraisal. In M. Hersen, R. M. Eisler, & P. M. Miller (Eds.),Progress in behavior modification (Vol. 1). New York: Academic Press, 1975.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, W. L., Boutilier, J., & Minnes, P. The modification of phobic behavior by covert reinforcement.Behavior Therapy 1974,5 469–480.

    Google Scholar 

  • McFall, R. M., & Lillesand, D. Behavior rehearsal with modeling and coaching in assertion training.Journal of Abnormal Psychology 1971,77 313–323.

    Google Scholar 

  • McFall, R. M., & Twentyman, C. T. Four experiments on the relative contributions of rehearsal, modeling, and coaching to assertion training.Journal of Abnormal Psychology 1973,81 199–218.

    Google Scholar 

  • McLemore, C. W. Imagery in desensitization.Behaviour Research and Therapy 1972,10 51–57.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rachman, S. Clinical applications of observational learning, imitation, and modeling.Behavior Therapy 1972,3 379–397.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ritter, B. The use of contact desensitization, demonstration-plus-participation, and demonstration alone in the treatment of acrophobia.Behaviour Research and Therapy 1969,7 157–164.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sachs, L. B., & Ingram, G. L. Covert sensitization as a treatment for weight control.Psychological Reports 1972,30 971–974.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sherman, A. R. Real-life exposure as a primary therapeutic factor in the desensitization treatment of fear.Journal of Abnormal Psychology 1972,79 19–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singer, J. L.Imagery and daydream methods in psychotherapy and behavior modification. New York: Academic Press, 1974.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thase, M. E., & Moss, M. K. The relative efficacy of covert modeling procedures and guided participant modeling on the reduction of avoidance behavior.Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 1976,7 7–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watson, J. P., & Marks, I. M. Relevant and irrelevant fear in flooding—A crossover study of phobic patients.Behavior Therapy 1971,2 275–293.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiner, H. Real and imagined cost effects upon human fixed-interval responding.Psychological Reports 1965,17 659–662.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weitzman, B. Behavior therapy and psychotherapy.Psychological Review 1967,74 300–317.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilkins, W. Desensitization: Social and cognitive factors underlying the effectiveness of Wolpe's procedure.Psychological Bulletin 1971,76 311–317.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolpe, J., & Lang, P. A fear survey schedule for use in behavior therapy.Behaviour Research and Therapy 1964,2 27–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, J. C. A comparison of systematic desensitization and social skill acquisition in the modification of a social fear.Behavior Therapy 1976,7 205–210.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Additional information

This article was completed while the author was a Fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Kazdin, A.E. Research issues in covert conditioning. Cogn Ther Res 1, 45–58 (1977). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01173504

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01173504

Keywords

Navigation