Abstract
A model for conceptualizing the components or elements of attention is presented. The model substitutes for the diffuse and global concept of “attention” a group of four processes and links them to a putative system of cerebral structures. Data in support of the model are presented; they are derived from neuropsychological test scores obtained from two samples, the first consisting of 203 adult neuropsychiatric patients and normal control subjects, and the second, an epidemiologically-based sample of 435 elementary school children. Principal components analyses of test scores from these two populations yielded similar results: a set of independent elements of attention that are assayed by different tests. This work presents a heuristic for clinical research in which the measurement of attention is essential.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adey, W. R. (1969). Spectral analysis of EEG data from animals and man during alerting, orienting and discriminative responses. In Evans, C. R., and Mulholland, T. B. (eds.),Attention in Neurophysiology: An International Conference, Butterworths, London, pp. 194–229.
Ajmone Marsan, C. (1965). The thalamus. Data on its functional anatomy and on some aspects of the thalamo-cortical integration.Archives Italiennes de Biologie 103: 847–882.
Allport, D. A. (1980). Patterns and actions: Cognitive mechanisms are content-specific. In Claxton, G. L. (ed.),Cognitive Psychology: New Directions, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, pp. 26–64.
American Psychiatric Association. (1987).Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (rev. 3rd ed.), Author, Washington, DC.
Anderson, E. V., Siegel, F. S., Frisch, R. O., and Wirt, R. D. (1969). Responses of phenylketonuric children on a continuous performance test.Journal of Abnormal Psychology 74: 358–362.
Asarnow, R. F., Steffy, R. A., MacCrimmon, D. J., and Cleghorn, J. M. (1977). An attentional assessment of foster children at risk for schizophrenia.Journal of Abnormal Psychology 86: 267–275.
Bakay Pragay, E., Mirsky, A. F., and Abplanalp, J. M. (1969). The effects of chlorpromazine and secobarbital on matching from sample and discrimination tasks in monkeys.Psychopharmacologia 7: 128–138.
Bakay Pragay, E., Mirsky, A. F., and Nakamura, R. K. (1988). Attention-related activity in the inferior-parietal and prestriate cortex of the monkey during a go/no-go visual discrimination task. Unpublished manuscript.
Bakay Pragay, E., Mirsky, A. F., and Nakamura, R. K. (1987). Attention-related unit activity in the frontal association cortex during a go/no-go visual discrimination task.Experimental Neurology 96: 481–500.
Bakay Pragay, E., Mirsky, A. F., Fullerton, B. C., Oshima, H. I., and Arnold, S. W. (1975). Effect of electrical stimulation of the brain on visually controlled (attentive) behavior in theMacaca mulatta.Experimental Neurology 49: 203–220.
Bakay Pragay, E., Mirsky, A. F., Ray, C. L., Turner, D. F., and Mirsky, C. V. (1978). Neuronal activity in the brain stem reticular formation during performance of a “go-no go” visual attention task in the monkey.Experimental Neurology 60: 83–95.
Battig, K., Rosvold, H. E., and Mishkin, M. (1960). Comparison of the effects of frontal and caudate lesions on delayed response and alternation in monkeys.Journal of Comparative & Physiological Psychology 53: 400–404.
Blakemore, C., Iversen, S. D., and Zangwill, O. L. (1972). Brain functions.Annual Review of Psychology 23: 413–456.
Bourdon, B. (1901). La Perception et designation des nombres.Entre camarades, Felix Alcan, Paris.
Campbell, D. T., and Fiske, D. W. (1959). Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait-multimethod matrix.Psychological Bulletin 56: 81–105.
Cantwell, D. P. (1975). Genetics and hyperactivity.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines 16: 261–264.
Christensen, A. L. (1979).Luria's Neuropsychological Investigation (2nd ed.), Munksgaard, Copenhagen.
Drewe, E. A. (1975). An experimental investigation of Luria's theory on the effects of frontal lesions in man.Neuropsychologia 13: 421–429.
Duncan, C. C. (1990). Current issues in the application of P300 to research in schizophrenia. In Straube, E. R., and Hahlweg, K. (eds.),Schizophrenia: Concepts, Vulnerability, and Intervention, Berlin, Springer-Verlag, pp. 117–134.
Duncan-Johnson, C. C., and Kopell, B. S. (1981). The Stroop effect: Brain potentials localize the source of interference.Science 214: 938–940.
Fedio, P., and Mirsky, A. F. (1969). Selective intellectual deficits in children with temporal lobe or centrencephalic epilepsy.Neuropsychologia 7: 287–300.
Fuster, J. M., and Uyeda, A. (1962). Facilitation of tachistoscopic performance by stimulation of midbrain tegmental points in the monkey.Experimental Neurology 6: 384–406.
Gloor, P. (1988). Neurophysiological mechanism of generalized spike and wave discharge and its implication for understanding absence seizures. In Myslobodsky, M. S., and Mirsky, A. F. (eds.),Elements of Petit Mal Epilepsy, Peter Lang, New York, pp. 159–209.
Golden, C. J. (1978). Stroop color and word test (Cat. No. 30150M).A Manual for Clinical and Experimental Uses, Stoelting, Chicago.
Goldstein, K., and Scheerer, M. (1941). Abstraction and concrete behavior. An experimental study with special tests.Psychological Monographs 53: 1–151.
Grant, D. A., and Berg, E. A. (1948). A behavioral analysis of degree of reinforcement and ease of shifting two new responses in a Weigl-type card sorting problem.Journal of Experimental Psychology 38: 404–411.
Greenblatt, R. M. (1986). The effects of brain stem compression on attention and memory (Doctoral dissertation, The City University of New York, 1986).Dissertation Abstracts International 47: 1301B.
Healton, E. B., Navarro, C., Bressman, S., and Brust, J. C. M. (1982). Subcortical neglect.Neurology 32: 776–778.
Heilman, R. M. (1979). Neglect and related disorders. In Heilman, K. M., and Valenstein, E. (eds.),Clinical neuropsychology, Oxford University Press, New York, pp. 268–307.
Heilman, R. M., and Valenstein, E. (1979). Mechanisms underlying hemispatial neglect.Annals of Neurology 5: 166–170.
Heilman, R. M., Watson, R. T., Valenstein, E., and Damasio, A. R. (1983). Localization of lesions in neglect. In Kertesz, A. (ed.),Localization in Neuropsychology, Academic Press, New York, pp. 319–331.
Hermann, B. P., and Wyler, A. R. (1988). Neuropsychological outcome of anterior temporal lobectomy.Journal of Epilepsy 1: 35–45.
Ingraham, L. J., Bridge, T. P., Janssen, R., Stover, E., and Mirsky, A. F. (1990). Neuropsychological effects of early HIV-1 infection: Assessment and methodology.The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 2: 174–182.
Jasper, H. H. (1958). Recent advances in our understanding of ascending activities of the reticular system. In Jasper, H. H. (ed.),Reticular Formation of the Brain, Little, Brown, Boston, pp. 319–331.
Jastak, J. F., and Jastak, F. R. (1978).The wide range achievement test (rev. ed.), Jastak Associates, Wilmington, DE.
Jones, B. P., Henderson, M., and Welch, C. A. (1988). Executive functions in unipolar depression before and after electroconvulsive therapy.International Journal of Neuroscience 38: 287–297.
Jones, E. G., and Peters, A. E. (eds.). (1986).Cerebral Cortex: Sensory-Motor Areas and Aspects of Cortical Connectivity, Plenum, New York.
Kahnemann, D. (1973).Attention and Effort, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Kaplan, E., and Morris, R. (1985).Boston modification of the WAIS-R. Unpublished manuscript.
Kaufman, A. S. (1979).Intelligent Testing with the WISC-R. John Wiley, New York.
Keele, S. W. (1973).Attention and Human Performance, Goodyear, Pacific Palisades, CA.
Kremen, W. S., Seidman, L. J., Faraone, S. V., Pepple, J. R., and Tsuang, M. T. (in press). Attention/information-processing factors in psychotic disorders: replication and extension of recent neuropsychological findings.Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease.
Lansdell, H., and Mirsky, A. F. (1964). Attention in focal and centrencephalic epilepsy.Experimental Neurology 9: 463–469.
Lezak, M. D. (1983).Neuropsychological Assessment, Oxford University Press, New York.
Lindsley, D. B. (1960). Attention, consciousness, sleep and wakefulness. In Field, J., Magoun, H. W., and Hall, V. E. (eds.),Handbook of Physiology, American Physiological Society, Washington, DC, pp. 1553–1593.
Lindsley, D. B., Bowden, J. W., and Magoun, H. W. (1949). Effect upon the EEG of acute injury to the brain stem activating system.Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 1: 475–486.
Luria, A. R. (1966).Higher Cortical Functions in Man. Basic Books, New York.
Mackworth, N. H. (1950). Researches on the measurement of human performance.Medical Research Council Special Report, (No. 268), HMSO, London.
MacLean, P. D. (1990).The Triune Brain in Evolution: Role in Paleocerebral Functions, Plenum Press, New York.
Mesulam, M. M. (1987). Attention, confusional states and neglect. In Mesulam, M. M. (ed.),Principles of Behavioral Neurology, Davis, Philadelphia, PA, pp. 125–168.
Milner, B. (1963). Effects of different brain lesions on card sorting.Archives of Neurology 9: 90–100.
Mirsky, A. F. (1987). Behavioral and psychophysiological markers of disordered attention.Environmental Health Perspectives 74: 191–199.
Mirsky, A. F., and Duncan, C. C. (1986). Etiology and expression of schizophrenia: Neurobiological and psychosocial factors.Annual Review of Psychology 37: 291–319.
Mirsky, A. F., and Duncan, C. C. (1987). An introduction to modern techniques of clinical neuropsychology. In Fava, G. A., and Wise, T. N. (eds.),Research Paradigms in Psychosomatic Medicine, Karger, Basel, pp. 167–184.
Mirsky, A. F., and Duncan, C. C. (1990). Behavioral and electrophysiological studies of absence epilepsy. In Avoli, M., Gloor, P., Kostopoulos, G., and Naquet, R. (eds.),Generalized Epilepsy: Neurobiological Approaches, Birkhäuser, Boston, pp. 254–269.
Mirsky, A. F., and Oshima, H. I. (1973). Effect of subcortical aluminum cream lesions in attentive behavior and the electroencephalogram in monkeys.Experimental Neurology 39: 1–18.
Mirsky, A. F., and Van Buren, J. M. (1965). On the nature of the “absence” in centrencephalic epilepsy: A study of some behavioral, electroencephalic and autonomic factors.Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 18: 334–348
Mirsky, A. F., Bakay Pragay, E., and Harris, S. (1977). Evoked potential correlates of stimulation-induced impairment of attention inMacaca mulatta.Experimental Neurology 57: 242–256.
Mirsky, A. F., Primac, D. W., Ajmone Marsan, C., Rosvold, H. E., and Stevens, J. A. (1960). A comparison of the psychological test performance of patients with focal and nonfocal epilepsy.Experimental Neurology 2: 75–89.
Mishkin, M. (1978). Memory in monkeys severely impaired by combined but not by separate removal of amygdala and hippocampus.Nature 273: 297–298.
Moruzzi, G., and Magoun, H. W. (1949). Brain stem reticular formation and activation of the EEG.Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 1: 455–473.
Murawski, B. J. (1970). The continuous performance test: A measure of sustained attention in human uremics. In Colelle, R. B., and Krueger, K. K. (eds.),Proceedings of the Workshop on Bioassays in Uremia, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, pp. 72–73.
Myslobodsky, M. S. (1976).Petit Mal Epilepsy, Academic Press, New York.
Neale, J. M., McIntyre, C. W., Fox, R., and Cromwell, R. L. (1969). Span of apprehension in acute schizophrenics.Journal of Abnormal Psychology 74: 593–596.
Needleman, H. L., Gunnol, C., Leviton, A., Reed, R., Peresie, H., Maher, C., and Barrett, P. (1979). Deficits in psychologic and classroom performance of children with elevated dentine lead levels.New England Journal of Medicine 13: 689–695.
Nuechterlein, K. H., Parasuraman, R., and Qiyuan, J. (1983). Visual sustained attention: Image degradation produces rapid sensitivity decrement over time.Science 220: 327–329.
Pandya, D. N., and Yeterian, E. H. (1985). Architecture and connection of cortical association areas. In Peters, A., and Jones, E. G. (eds.),Cerebral Cortex: Association and Auditory Cortices, Vol. 4, Plenum, New York, pp. 3–61.
Parasuraman, R. (1986). Vigilance, monitoring and search. In Boff, K. R., Kaufman, L., and Thomas, J. P. (eds.),Handbook of Perception and Human Performance, Wiley, New York, pp. 43-1–43-39.
Parasuraman, R., and Davies, D. R. (1977). A taxonomic analysis of vigilance performance. In Mackie, R. R. (ed.),Vigilance: Theory, Operational Performance and Physiological Correlates, New York, Plenum, pp. 559–574.
Parasuraman, R., and Davies, D. R. (1984).Varieties of Attention, Academic Press, Orlando, FL.
Parasuraman, R., Warm, J. S., and Dember, W. N. (1987). Vigilance: taxonomy and utility. In Mark, L. S., Warm, J. S., and Huston, R. L. (eds.),Ergonomics and Human Factors: Recent Research, Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 11–32.
Penfield, W., and Jasper, M. (eds.). (1954).Epilepsy and the Functional Anatomy of the Human Brain, Little, Brown, Boston.
Posner, M. I. (1978).Chrometric Explorations of Mind, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ.
Posner, M. I. (1988). Structures and functions in selective attention. In Boll, T., and Bryant, B. K. (eds.),Clinical Neuropsychology and Brain Function, APA, Washington, DC, pp. 169–202.
Posner, M. I., and Petersen, S. E. (1990). The attention system of the human brain.Annual Review of Neuroscience 13: 25–42.
Posner, M. I., Petersen, S. E., Fox, P., and Raichle, M. E. (1988). Localization of cognitive operations in the human brain.Science 240: 1627–1631.
Posner, M. I., Walker, J. A., Friedrich, F. J., and Rafal, R. D. (1984). Effects of parietal lobe injury on covert orienting of visual attention.Journal of Neuroscience 4: 1863–1874.
Pribram, K. H., and McGuinness, D. (1975). Arousal, activation, and effort in the control of attention.Psychological Review 82: 116–149.
Ray, C. L., Mirsky, A. M., and Bakay Pragay, E. (1982). Functional analysis of attention-related unit activity in the reticular formation of the monkey.Experimental Neurology 77: 544–562.
Reitan, R. M., and Davidson, L. A. (eds.). (1974).Clinical Neuropsychology: Current Status and Applications, V. H. Winston and Sons, Washington, DC.
Rosvold, H. E., Mirsky, A. F., Sarason, I., Bransome, E. D., Jr., and Beck, L. H. (1956). A continuous performance test of brain damage.Journal of Consulting Psychology 20: 343–350.
Roth, B. E., Connell, R. E., Faught, R. E., and Adams, B. (1988). Attention deficits in patients with complex partial seizures.Epilepsia 29: 693.
Rutter, M., Tizard, J., and Whitmore, L. (1970).Education, Health and Behavior, Longman, London.
SAS Institute, Inc. (1986).SAS User's Guide: Statistics, Version 5 Edition. Release 5.16, Author, Cary, NC.
Scheibel, A. B. (1980). Anatomical and physiological substrates of arousal: A view from the bridge. In Hobson, J. A., and Brazier, M. A. B.,The Reticular Formation Revisited, Raven, New York, pp. 55–60.
Scoville, W. B., and Milner, B. (1957). Loss of recent memory after bilateral hippocampal lesions.Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 20: 11–21.
Shiffrin, R. M. (1988). Attention. In Atkinson, R. C., Herrnstein, R. J., Lindzey, G., and Luce, R. D. (eds.),Stevens' Handbook of Experimental Psychology (2nd ed.), Wiley, New York, pp. 739–812.
Shiffrin, R. M., and Schneider, W. (1977). Controlled and automatic human information processing. II: Perceptual learning, automatic attending, and a general theory.Psychological Review 84: 127–190.
Sohlberg, M. M., and Mateer, C. A. (1989).Introduction to Cognitive Rehabilitation. Theory and Practice, Guilford, New York.
Sperling, G., and Dosher, B. A. (1986). Handbook of perception and human performance. In Boff, K. R., Kaufman, L., and Thomas, J. P. (eds.),Strategy and Optimization in Human Information Processing, Wiley, New York, pp. 2-1–2-65.
Spitzer, R. L., and Endicott, J. (1979).Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia: Life Time Version, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York.
Squire, L. R., and Butters, N. (eds.). (1984).Neuropsychology of Memory, Guilford, New York.
Steinhauer, S. R., Zubin, J., Condray, R., Shaw, D. B., Peters, J. L., and Van Kammen, D. P. (1991). Electrophysiological and behavioral signs of attentional disturbance in schizophrenics and their siblings. In Tamminga, C. A., and Schulz, S. C. (eds.),Advances in Neuropsychiatry and Psychopharmacology Volume I: Schizophrenia Research, Raven, New York, pp. 169–178.
Stroop, J. R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions.Journal of Experimental Psychology 18: 643–662.
Talland, G. A. (1965).Deranged Memory, Academic Press, New York:
Wechsler, D. (1945). A standardized memory scale for clinical use.Journal of Psychology 19: 87–95.
Wechsler, D. (1974).Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Revised, Psychological Corporation, New York.
Wechsler, D. (1981).Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised. Psychological Corporation, New York.
Weinberger, D. R., Berman, K. F., and Zec, R. F. (1986). Physiological dysfunction of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia. I: Regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) evidence. Archives of General Psychiatry 43: 114–125.
Wickens, C. D. (1980). The structure of attentional resources. In Nickerson, R. S. (ed.),Attention and Performance VIII, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ., pp. 239–257.
Wilkins, A. J., Shallice, T., and McCarthy, R. (1987). Frontal lesions and sustained attention.Neuropsychologia 25: 359–65.
Yakovlev, P. I. and Lecours, A.-R. (1967). The myelogenetic cycles of regional maturation of the brain. In Minkowski, A. (ed.),Regional Development of the Brain in Early Life, Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 3–70.
Yingling, C. D., and Skinner, J. E. (1975). Regulation of unit activity in nucleus reticularis thalami by the mesencephalic reticular formation and the frontal granular cortex.Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 39: 635–642.
Zubin, J. (1975). Problem of attention in schizophrenia. In Kietzman, M. L., Sutton, S., and Zubin, J. (eds.),Experimental Approaches to Psychopathology, Academic Press, New York, pp. 139–166.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Mirsky, A.F., Anthony, B.J., Duncan, C.C. et al. Analysis of the elements of attention: A neuropsychological approach. Neuropsychol Rev 2, 109–145 (1991). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01109051
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01109051