Skip to main content

Influence of food and diet on gastrointestinal drug absorption: A review

Journal of Pharmacokinetics and Biopharmaceutics volume 5, pages 291–334 (1977)Cite this article

Abstract

The literature concerning the influence of food, and also fluid volumes, on drug absorption is reviewed. In most cases, the absorption of drugs from the gastrointestinal tract is reduced or delayed by food. However, some drugs are unaffected by food, while the absorption of a small number of drugs is increased. Observed effects of food on drug absorption are the net result of various factors, including the influence of food on gastrointestinal physiology and also physicochemical interactions between drugs, drug dosage forms, and dietary components. The intensity of food-drug interactions may be influenced by the type of food and by the time interval between eating and drug administration. Large coadministered fluid volumes tend to promote drug absorption. The clinical significance of changes in drug bioavailability due to these factors is discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price includes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

References

  1. T. R. Bates and M. Gibaldi. Gastrointestinal absorption of drugs. In J. Swarbrick (ed.),Current Concepts in the Pharmaceutical Sciences: Biopharmaceutics, Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia, 1970, pp. 57–99.

    Google Scholar 

  2. M. Rowland. Effect of some physiological factors on bioavailability of oral dosage forms. In J. Swarbrick (ed.),Current Concepts in the Pharmaceutical Sciences: Dosage Form Design and Bioavailability, Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia, 1973, pp. 181–222.

    Google Scholar 

  3. J. L. Brandt, L. Castleman, H. D. Ruskin, J. Greenwald, J. J. Kelly, and A. Jones. The effect of oral protein and glucose feeding on splanchnic blood flow and oxygen utilization in normal and cirrhotic subjects.J. Clin. Invest. 34:1017–1025 (1955).

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  4. D. I. Abramson and S. M. Fierst, Peripheral vascular responses in man during digestion.Am. J. Physiol. 133:686–693 (1941).

    Google Scholar 

  5. E. J. Reininger and L. A. Sapirstein. Effect of digestion on distribution of blood flow in the rat.Science 126:1176 (1957).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  6. M. Gibaldi, R. N. Boyes, and S. Feldman. Influence of first-pass effect on availability of drugs on oral administration.J. Pharm. Sci. 60:1338–1340 (1971).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  7. M. Rowland. Influence of route of administration on drug bioavailability.J. Pharm. Sci. 61:70–74 (1972).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  8. T. J. DeMarco and R. R. Levine. The role of the lymphatics in the intestinal absorption and distribution of drugs.J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 169:142–151 (1969).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. J. N. Hunt and M. T. Knox. Regulation of gastric emptying. In C. F. Code (ed.),Handbook of Physiology, Sect. 6, Vol. 4:Alimentary Canal, American Physiological Society, Washington, D.C., 1968, pp. 1917–1935.

    Google Scholar 

  10. J. N. Hunt. Gastric emptying and secretion in man.Physiol. Rev. 39:491–533 (1959).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. A. Hopkins. The pattern of gastric emptying: A new review of old results.J. Physiol. (Land.) 182:144–149 (1966).

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  12. J. N. Hunt and I. MacDonald. The influence of volume on gastric emptying.J. Physiol. (Land.) 126:459–474 (1954).

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  13. H. W. Davenport.Physiology of the Digestive Tract, Chicago Year Book Publishers, Chicago, 1961, pp. 50, 149.

    Google Scholar 

  14. G. Levy and W. Jusko. Effect of viscosity on drug absorption.J. Pharm. Sci. 54:219–225 (1965).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  15. W. H. Bachrach. Physiology and pathologic physiology of the stomach.Ciba Found. Symp. 11:3–28 (1959).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. C. S. Marcus and F. W. Lengemann. Absorption of45Ca and85Sr from solid and liquid food at various levels of the alimentary tract of the rat.J. Nutr. 77:155–160 (1962).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. M. Gibaldi and S. Feldman. Mechanisms of surfactant effects on drug absorption.J. Pharm. Sci. 59:579–589 (1970).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  18. E. H. Dearborn, J. T. Litchfield, Jr., H. J. Eisner, J. J. Corbett, and C. W. Dunnett. The effects of various substances on the absorption of tetracycline in rats.Antibiot. Med. 4:627–641 (1957).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. K. W. Kohn. Mediation of divalent metal ions in the binding of tetracycline to macromolecules.Nature 191:1156–1158 (1961).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  20. E. Fingl and D. M. Woodbury. In L. S. Goodman and A. Gilman (eds.),The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, Macmillan, New York, 1970, p. 5.

    Google Scholar 

  21. H. C. Ferguson. Dilution of dose and oral toxicity.Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 4:759–762 (1962).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  22. J. L. Borowitz, P. F. Moore, G. K. W. Yim, and T. S. Miya. Mechanism of enhanced drug effects produced by dilution of the oral dose.Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 19:164–168 (1971).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  23. B. K. Martin. The formulation of aspirin. In H. S. Bean, A. H. Beckett, and J. E. Carless (eds.),Advances in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Vol. 3, Academic Press, New York, 1971, pp. 107–171.

    Google Scholar 

  24. H. Ochsenfahrt and D. Winne. The contribution of solvent drag to the intestinal absorption of the acidic drugs benzoic acid and salicylic acid from the jejunum of the rat.Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Arch. Pharmacol. 281:197–217 (1974).

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  25. C. G. McCarthy and M. Finland. Absorption and excretion of four penicillins; penicillin G, penicillin V, phenethicillin and Phenymercaptomethyl penicillin.New Engl. J. Med. 263:315–326 (1960).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. G. A. Cronk, W. B. Wheatley, G. F. Fellers, and H. Albright. The relationship of food intake to the absorption of potassium alpha-phenoxyethyl penicillin and potassium phenoxymethyl penicillin from the gastrointestinal tract.Am. J. Med. Sci. 240:219–225 (1960).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  27. G. A. Cronk, D. E. Naumann, H. Albright, and W. B. Wheatley. Laboratory and clinical studies with potassium penicillin-152 (potassium (α-phenoxyethyl)-penicillin).Antibiotics Annual, 1959–1960, Med. Encycl. Inc., 1960, pp. 133–145.

  28. H. Berlin and G. Brante, Studies on oral utilization of penicillin V.Antibiotics Annual, 1958–1959. Med. Encycl. Inc., 1959, pp. 149–157.

  29. F. B. Peck, Jr., and R. S. Griffith. Comparative clinical laboratory studies of potassium penicillin V with acid penicillin V.Antibiotics Annual, 1957–1958, Med. Encycl. Inc., 1958, pp. 1004–1014.

  30. C.-C. Lee, R. O. Froman, R. C. Anderson, and K. K. Chen. Gastric and intestinal absorption of potassium penicillin V and the free acid.Antibiot. Chemother. 8:354–360 (1958).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. R. C. Gordon, C. Regamy, and W. M. M. Kirby. Comparative clinical pharmacology of amoxicillin and ampicillin administered orally.Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1:504–507 (1972).

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  32. H. C. Neu. Antimicrobial activity and human pharmacology of amoxicillin.J. Infect. Dis. (Suppl.) 129:S123–8131 (1974).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. P. G. Welling, H. Huang, P. A. Koch, W. A. Craig, and P. O. Madsen. Bioavailability of ampicillin and amoxicillin in fasted and nonfasted subjects.J. Pharm. Sci. 66:549–552 (1977).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  34. T. G. Vitti, M. J. Gurwith, and A. R. Ronald. Pharmacologic studies of amoxicillin in nonfasting adults.J. Infect. Dis. (Suppl.) 129:S149-S153 (1974).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, 15th ed., Mack Publishing Co., Easton, Pa., 1975, pp. 1128, 1133.

  36. W. von Daehne, W. O. Godtfredsen, K. Roholt, and L. Tybring. Pivampicillin a new orally active ampicillin ester.Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1970:431–437 (1971).

    Google Scholar 

  37. E. L. Foltz, J. W. West, I. H. Breslow, and H. Wallick. Clinical pharmacology of pivampicillin.Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1970:442–453 (1971).

    Google Scholar 

  38. T. Bergan. Pivampicillin (Pondocillin) a new alternative to ampicillin.Tidsskr. Nor. Laegeforen. 92:503–504 (1972).

    Google Scholar 

  39. L. Magni and J. Sjovall. Absorption of ampicillin and pivampicillin in relation to food intake.Farmaceutisk Tidende 32:645–648 (1972).

    Google Scholar 

  40. C. A. Fernandez, J. P. Menezes, and J. Ximenes. The effect of food on the absorption of pivampicillin and a comparison with the absorption of ampicillin potassium.J. Int. Med. Res. 1:530–533 (1973).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. P. J. Neuvonen, G. Gothini, R. Hackman, and K. Björksten. Interference of iron with the absorption of tetracyclines in man.Br. Med. J. 4:532–534 (1970).

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  42. P. G. Neuvonen and H. Turakka. Inhibitory effect of various iron salts on the absorption of tetracycline in man.Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 7:357–360 (1974).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  43. G. E. Schumacher. Drug diffusion and bioavailability: Tetracycline metallic chelation.Am. J. Hosp. Pharm. 32:625–629 (1975).

    Google Scholar 

  44. K. W. Price, Z. Zolli, Jr., J. C. Atkinson, and H. G. Luther. Antibiotic inhibitors. II. Studies on the inhibitory action of selected divalent cations for oxytetracycline.Antibiot. Chemother. 1:689–701 (1957).

    Google Scholar 

  45. M. P. Braybrooks, B. W. Barry, and E. T. Abbs. The effect of mucin on the bioavailability of tetracycline from the gastrointestinal tract;in vivo-in vitro correlations.J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 27:504–515 (1975).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. P. Neuvonen, M. Mattila, G. Gothini, and R. Hackman. Interference of iron and milk with absorption of tetracycline.Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Invest. (Suppl.) 27:76 (1971).

    Google Scholar 

  47. J. Schreiner and W. A. Altemeier. Experimental study of factors inhibiting absorption and effective therapeutic levels of declomycin.Surg. Gynecol. Obstet. 114:9–14 (1962).

    Google Scholar 

  48. M. Schach von Wittenau. Some pharmacokinetic aspects of doxycycline metabolism in man.Chemotherapy (Suppl.) 13:41–51 (1968).

    Google Scholar 

  49. J. E. Rosenblatt, J. E. Barrett, J. L. Brodie, and W. M. M. Kirby. Comparison ofin vitro activity and clinical pharmacology of doxycycline with other tetracyclines.Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1966:134–141 (1967).

    Google Scholar 

  50. W. M. M. Kirby, C. E. Roberts, and R. E. Burdick. Comparison of two new tetracyclines with tetracycline and demethylchlortetracycline.Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1961:286–292 (1962).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. P. G. Welling, P. A. Koch, C. C. Lau, and W. A. Craig. Bioavailability of tetracycline and doxycycline in fasted and nonfasted subjects.Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 11:462–469 (1977).

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  52. A. S. D. Spiers and H. R. Malone. Effect of food on aspirin absorption.Lancet 1:440 (1967).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. J. H. Wood. Effect of food on aspirin absorption.Lancet 2:212 (1967).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. M. Rowland, S. Riegelman, P. A. Harris, and S. D. Sholkoff. Absorption kinetics of aspirin in man following oral administration of an aqueous solution.J. Pharm. Sci. 61:379–385 (1972).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  55. M. Gibaldi and B. Grundhofer. Biopharmaceutic influences on the anticholinergic effects of propantheline.Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 18:457–461 (1975).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. A. K. Granerus, R. Jagenburg, S. Rödjer, and A. Svanborg. Phenylalanine absorption and metabolism in parkinsonian patients.Br. Med. J. 4:262–264 (1971).

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  57. J. J. Richter and A. Wainer. Evidence for separate systems for the transport of neutral and basic amino acids across the blood-brain barrier.J. Neurochem. 18:613–620 (1971).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  58. N. G. Gillespie, I. Mena, G. C. Cotzias, and M. A. Bell. Diets affecting treatment of parkinsonism with levodopa.J. Am. Diet Assoc. 62:525–528 (1973).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. S. Furesz, R. Scotti, R. Pallanzer, and E. Mapelli. Rifampicin: A new rifamycin.Arzneim. Forsch. 17:534–537 (1967).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. L. Verbist and A. Gyselen. Antituberculous activity of rifampinin vitro andin vivo and the concentrations attained in human blood.Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 98:923–932 (1968).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. P. E. Dans, R. F. McGehee, C. Wilcox, and M. Finland. Rifampin: Antibacterial activityin vitro and absorption and excretion in normal young men.Amer. J. Med. Sci. 259:120–132 (1970).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  62. K. L. Radenbach. Results of clinical studies with capreomycin, ethambutol and rifampicin in the Heckeshorn Hospital Berlin.Scand. J. Resp. Dis. 69:43–54 (1969).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. D. I. Siegler, M. Bryant, D. M. Burley, K. M. Citron, and S. M. Standen. Effect of meals on rifampicin absorption.Lancet 2:197–198 (1974).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  64. C. Harvengt, P. de Schepper, F. Lamy, and J. Hansen. Cephradine absorption and excretion in fasting and nonfasting volunteers.J. Clin. Pharmacol. 13:36–40 (1973).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. T. W. Mischler, A. A. Sugerman, D. A. Willard, L. J. Brannick, and E. S. Neiss. Influence of probenecid and food on the bioavailability of cephradine in normal male subjects.J. Clin. Pharmacol. 14:604–611 (1974).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  66. O. L. Peterson, M. Finland, and A. N. Ballou. The effect of food and alkali on the absorption and excretion of sulfonamide drugs after oral and duodenal administration.Am. J. Med. Sci. 204:581–588 (1942).

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  67. H. MacDonald, V. A. Place, H. Falk, and M. A. Darken. Effect of food on absorption of sulfonamides in man.Chemotherapia 12:282–285 (1967).

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  68. G. N. Volans. Effects of food and exercise on the absorption of effervescent aspirin.Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 1:137–141 (1974).

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  69. J. N. Hunt. Gastric emptying in relation to drug absorption.Am. J. Digest. Dis. 8:885–894 (1963).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  70. J. J. Jaffe, J. L. Colaizzi, and H. Barry. Effects of dietary components on GI absorption of acetaminophen tablets in man.J. Pharm. Sci. 60:1646–1650 (1971).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  71. N. Sanchez, L. B. Sheiner, H. Halkin, and K. L. Melmon. Pharmacokinetics of digoxin: Interpreting bioavailability.Br. Med. J. 4:132–134 (1973).

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  72. D. J. Greenblatt, D. W. Duhme, J. Koch-Weser, and T. W. Smith. Bioavailability of digoxin tablets and elixir in the fasting and postprandial states.Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 16:444–448 (1974).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. R. J. White, D. A. Chamberlain, M. Howard, and T. W. Smith. Plasma concentrations of digoxin after oral administration in the fasting and postprandial state.Br. Med. J. 1:380–381 (1971).

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  74. M. R. Kelly, R. E. Cutler, A. W. Forrey, and B. M. Kimpel. Pharmacokinetics of orally administered furosemide.Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 15:178–186 (1974).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. D. Ben-Ishay and K. Engelman. Bioavailability of potassium from a slow-release tablet.Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 14:250–258 (1973).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. R. E. Cutler, A. W. Forrey, T. G. Christopher, and B. M. Kimpel. Pharmacokinetics of furosemide in normal subjects and functionally anephric patients.Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 15:588–596 (1974).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. S. Kojima, R. B. Smith, and J. T. Doluisio. Drug absorption. V. Influence of food on oral absorption of phenobarbital in rats.J. Pharm. Sci. 60:1639–1641 (1971).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  78. S. Kojima. Factors influencing absorption and excretion of drugs. I. Effect of food on gastrointestinal absorption of amobarbital in rats.Chem. Pharm. Bull. 21:2432–2437 (1973).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  79. J. M. Orr and L. Z. Benet. The effect of fasting on the rate of intestinal drug absorption in rats: Preliminary studies.Am. J. Digest. Dis. 20:858–865 (1975).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  80. P. G. Welling, L. L. Lyons, W. A. Craig, and G. A. Trochta. Influence of diet and fluid on bioavailability of theophylline.Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 17:475–480 (1975).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. P. A. Mitenko and R. I. Ogilvie. Pharmacokinetics of intravenous theophylline.Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 14:509–513 (1973).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. An annotated list of drugs with potential for therapeutic inequivalence based on current evidence of drug product bioavailabiiity inequivalence.J. Am. Pharm. Assoc. NS13:279–280 (1972).

  83. A. V. Tembo, E. Sakmar, M. R. Hallmark, D. J. Weidler, and J. G. Wagner. Effect of food on the bioavailability of prednisone.J. Clin. Pharmacol. 16:620–624 (1976).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  84. J. M. Tukey. Comparing individual means in the analysis of variance.Biometrics 5:99–114 (1949).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  85. R. G. Crounse. Human pharmacology of griseofulvin: The effect of fat intake on gastrointestinal absorption.J. Invest. Dermatol. 37:529–533 (1961).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  86. P. Kabasakalian, M. Katz, B. Rosenkrantz, and E. Townley. Parameters affecting absorption of griseofulvin in a human subject using urinary metabolite excretion data.J. Pharm. Sci. 59:595–600 (1970).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  87. T. R. Bates, M. Gibaldi, and J. L. Kanig. Solubilizing properties of bile salt solutions. I. Effect of temperature and bile salt concentration on solubilization of glutethimide, griseofulvin and hexestrol.J. Pharm. Sci. 55:191–199 (1966).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  88. T. R. Bates, M. Gibaldi, and J. L. Kanig. Solubilizing properties of bile salt solutions. II. Effect of inorganic electrolyte, lipids, and a mixed bile salt system on solubilization of glutethimide, griseofulvin and hexestrol.J. Pharm. Sci. 55:901–906 (1966).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  89. T. R. Bates, J. A. Sequeira, and A. V. Tembo. Effect of food on nitrofurantoin absorption.Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 16:63–68 (1974).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. P. G. Welling, L. L. Lyons, F. L. S. Tse, and W. A. Craig. Propoxyphene and norpropoxyphene: Influence of diet and fluid on plasma levels.Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 19:559–565 (1975).

    Google Scholar 

  91. J. G. Wagner, P. G. Welling, S. B. Roth, E. Sakmar, K. P. Lee, and J. E. Walker. Plasma concentrations of propoxyphene in man. I. Following oral administration of drug in solution and capsule forms.Int. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 5:371–380 (1972).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. G. Levy and W. J. Jusko. Factors affecting the absorption of riboflavin in man.J. Pharm. Sci. 55:285–289 (1966).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  93. W. J. Jusko and G. Levy. Absorption, metabolism and excretion of riboflavin-5'-phosphate in man.J. Pharm. Sci. 56:58–62 (1967).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  94. J. Jeppson and J. Sjögren. The influence of food on side effects and absorption of lithium.Acta Psychiat. Scand. 51:285–288 (1975).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  95. W. J. Jusko and G. P. Lewis. Comparison of ampicillin and hetacillin pharmacokinetics in man.J. Pharm. Sci. 62:69–76 (1973).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  96. R. Sutherland and O. P. W. Robinson. Laboratory and pharmacological studies in man with hetacillin and ampicillin.Br. Med. J. 2:804–808 (1967).

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  97. J. M. McGuire, R. L. Bunch, R. C. Anderson, H. E. Boaz, H. E. Flynn, H. M. Powell, and J. W. Smith. “Ilotycin,” a new antibiotic.Antibiot. Chemother. 2:281–283 (1952).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. L. E. Josselyn and J. C. Sylvester. Absorption of erythromycin.Antibiot. Chemother. 3:63–66 (1952).

    Google Scholar 

  99. J. W. Smith, R. W. Dyke, and R. S. Griffith. Absorption following oral administration of erythromycin.J. Am. Med. Assoc. 151:805–810 (1953).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. A. R. DiSanto. Bioavailability data: Protocols CS 071 and CS 076, Upjohn Co., Kalamazoo, Mich., 1976.

    Google Scholar 

  101. H. A. Hirsch and M. Finland. Effect of food on the absorption of erythromycin propionate, erythromycin stearate and triacetyloleandomycin.Am. J. Med. Sci. 237:693–708 (1959).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  102. W. E. Clapper, M. Mostyn, and G. H. Meade. An evaluation of erythromycin stearate and propionyl erythromycin in normal and hospitalized subjects.Antibiot. Med. Clin. Ther. 7:91–96 (1960).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. P. G. Welling. Unpublished data.

  104. R. S. Griffith and H. R. Black. Comparison of the blood levels obtained after single and multiple doses of erythromycin estolate and erythromycin stearate.Am. J. Med. Sci. 247:69–74 (1964).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  105. J. C. Sylvester and L. E. Josselyn. Absorption of erythromycin. II. Erythromycin stearate.Antibiot. Chemother. 3:930–932 (1953).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. R. S. Griffith, M. Joiner, and H. Kottlowski. Comparison of antibacterial activity in the sera of subjects ingesting propionyl erythromycin lauryl sulfate and erythromycin ethyl carbonate.Antibiot. Med. Clin. Ther. 7:320–326 (1960).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. H. A. Hirsch, C. V. Pryles, and M. Finland. Effect of food on absorption of a new form of erythromycin propionate.Am. J. Med. Sci. 239:198–202 (1960).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  108. Bioavailability data: Studies 73–190 and 75–103, Abbott Laboratories, North Chicago, 1976.

  109. R. G. Wiegand and A. H. C. Chun. Serum protein binding of erythromycin and erythromycin-2′-propionate ester.J. Pharm. Sci. 61:425–428 (1972).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  110. K.-Y. Tserng and J. G. Wagner. Fluorometric determination of erythromycin and erythromycin propionate in whole blood or plasma and correlation of results with microbiological assay.Anal. Chem. 48:348–353 (1976).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  111. Y.-J. Lin, D. J. Weidler, D. C. Garg, and J. G. Wagner. Effects of solid food on blood levels of alcohol in man.Res. Commun. Chem. Pathol. Pharmacol. 13:713–722 (1976).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. J. G. Wagner, P. K. Wilkinson, A. J. Sedman, D. R. Kay, and D. J. Weidler. Elimination of alcohol from human blood.J. Pharm. Sci. 65:152–154 (1976).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  113. P. G. Welling, L. L. Lyons, R. Elliott, and G. L. Amidon. Pharmacokinetics of alcohol following single low doses to fasted and nonfasted subjects.J. Clin. Pharmacol. 17:199–206 (1977).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  114. A. R. Cooke. The simultaneous emptying and absorption of alcohol from the human stomach.Am. J. Digest. Dis. 15:449–454 (1970).

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  115. H. W. Haggard, L. A. Greenberg, and G. Lolli. The absorption of alcohol with special reference to its influence on the concentration of alcohol appearing in the blood.Quart. J. Stud. Alcohol 1:684–726 (1941).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. A. Krondl. Present understanding of the interaction of drugs and food during absorption.Can. Med. Assoc. J. 103:360–364 (1970).

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Center for Health Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Wisconsin, 53706, Madison, Wisconsin

    Peter G. Welling

Authors
  1. Peter G. Welling
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Welling, P.G. Influence of food and diet on gastrointestinal drug absorption: A review. Journal of Pharmacokinetics and Biopharmaceutics 5, 291–334 (1977). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01061694

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01061694

Key words

  • drug absorption
  • influence of food
  • dietary components
  • fluid volume
  • clinical significance