Traditionally law has functioned as the hand maiden of the propertied class in our society. So it was to be expected that lawyers in the legislative halls, lawyers on the bench and lawyers in the executive branch of government would combine their talents to perpetuate by law this peculiarly American doctrine of racism predicated upon a claimed color inferiority.
Summary
The present paper presented key applications of psychology and the law to the black community, embracing both civil and criminal law and legislation. The breadth of its focus preluded a more in-depth treatment of other areas relevant to black people which include issues related to psychiatric emergencies and involuntary hospitalization, child custody, and “right-to-treatment” litigation in prison and mental health facilities. In focusing attention on these applications and areas for activity, hopefully, I have not presented an unrealistic depiction of a responsive, socially sensitive, legal system capable and willing to exercise its powerful tools in the interest of the black community. To the contrary, there is considerable literature that identifies the historic role of the legal system in the enactments of laws to institutionalize and cement slavery, its failure to aggressively protect constitutional and civil rights of blacks, in imposing penalties differentially to blacks and whites in the criminal justice system, and more recently, conspiracies of law enforcement officials to deprive blacks of basic civil rights (Bell, 1975; Burns, 1973; Higgenbotham, 1973). The legal system, rather than being an effective instrument for justice and positive social changes, has often been a major source of racism. Thus, any meaningful attempts by lawyers or behavioral scientists in the interest of black people cannot ignore the racism that is embedded in the fabric of the legal profession and the behavioral sciences. Particular aspects of the law with significant social-psychological dimensions are: the “cultural inertia,” the archaicness of the law due to its roots in English common-law, historic and contemporary racism, conservatism associated with the principle of “stare decisis,” judicial elitism, and the substitution of “administrative” and “judicial discretion” for overt racism. Thus, in order for the legal system, or the field of psychology, to be reponsive to the needs of blacks and other oppressed groups, they must eradicate racism and injustice in their own ranks.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
American Psychology-Law Society Newsletter, 1977,9 (2).
Arnold, W.R. Race and ethnicity relative to other factors in juvenile court dispositions.American Journal of Sociology, 1971,77, 211–227.
Aubrey, L. (Ed.),Larry P. v. Wilson Riles: Erroneous educational classification and disproportionate placement of Blacks in classes for the educable mentally retarded in California public school systems. Los Angeles, California: Spring, 1975.
Barnes, E. Cultural retardation or shortcomings of assessment techniques. In R. L. Jones (ed.)Black Psychology, New York: Harper and Row, 1972.
Bay Area Association of Black Psychologists. Position statement on the use of I.Q. and ability testing. In R. L. Jones (Ed.)Black Psychology. New York: Harper and Row, 1972.
Bell, D.Race, Racism and American Law Boston: Little, Brown, 1975.
Billingsley,A. Black Families in White America. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1968.
Black Child Development Institute. Guidelines for research involving Black children. Unpublished paper, 1974.
Brodsky, S. (Ed.)Psychologists in the Criminal Justice System. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973.
Broeder, D.W. The Negro in court. In C. Reasons & J. Kuykendall (Eds.)Race, Crime and Justice. Pacific Palisades, California: Goodyear, 1972.
Bullock, H. Significance of the racial factor in the length of prison sentences.Journal of Criminal Law, 1961,14, 131–143.
Burns, H. Black people and the tyranny of American law.Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 1973,407: 156–166.
Carter v. General Motors Company, 361 Mich. 577, 106 N.W. 2d 105, 1961.
Cartwright, R., & Zander, H.Group Dynamics: Research and Theory (2nd ed.). Evanston, Illinois: Row, Peterson, 1960.
Chase, A.The Legacy of Malthus. New York: A.W. Knopf, 1977.
Clark, K., & Clark, M. Racial identification and preferences in Negro children. In T. M. Newcomb & E. L. Hartley's (Eds.)Readings in Social Psychology, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1947.
Coleman, L. Tetimony prepared for Spain v. Procunier, July, 1974.
Cooper, G. Introduction: Equal employment law today.Columbia Human Rights Law Review, 1973,5, 263–279.
Crockett, G. Racism in the law In C. Reasons & J. Kuykendall (Eds.).Race, Crime and Justice. Pacific Palisades, California: Goodyear, 1972.
Davis, J.H., Bray, R.M., & Holt, R.W. The empirical study of decision processes in juries: A critical review. In J. L. Tapp & F. J. Levine (Eds.).Law, Justice and the Individual in Society: Psychological and Legal Issues. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1977.
Delaney, L. The other bodies in the river. In R. L. Jones (Ed.)Black Psychology. New York: Harper and Row, 1972.
Dent, H., Hilliard, T., Pierce, W., & West, G. Testimony prepared for Larry P. v. Wilson Riles. In Aubrey, E. (Ed.)Larry P. v. Wilson Riles: Erroneous educational classification and disproportionate placement of Blacks in classes for the educable mentally retarded in California public schools. Los Angeles, California: Spring, 1975.
Diamond, B. Criminal responsibility of the mentally ill.Stanford Law Review. 1961,14, 59–86.
Diamond, B. Testimony prepared for Spain v. Procunier, July, 1974.
Diamond, B. The fallacy of the impartial expert. In R. Allen, E. Ferster & J. Rubin (Eds.)Readings in Psychiatry and Law (2nd ed.). Baltimore: John Hopkins Press, 1975.
Epstein, W., & Rock, I. Perceptual set as an artifact of recency.American Journal of Psychology, 1960,73, 214–228.
Federal Register, January 20, 1976.
Fisher v. United States, 328 U.S. 463 (1946).
Franklin, J.From Slavery to Freedom (Rev. ed.). New York: Vintage, 1969.
Gerbasi, K.C., Zuckerman, M., & Reis, H.T. Justice needs a new blindfold: A review of mock jury research.Psychological Bulletin, 1977,84, 323–345.
Ginger, F.Minimizing Racism in Jury Trials. Berkeley: The National Lawyers Guild, 1969.
Gould, W.Black Workers in White Unions. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1977.
Gray, S. The insanity defense: Historical developments and contemporary relevance.American Criminal Law Review, 1972,10, 559–565.
Green, R.L. The social responsibility of psychology.Journal of Black Psychology, 1974,1, 25–29.
Grier, W., & Cobbs, P.Black Rage. New York: Bantam, 1968.
Griggs v. Duke Power Co., 401 U.S. 424 (1971).
Guthrie, R.V.Even the Rat was White. New York: Harper and Row, 1976.
Haney, C., Banks, C., & Zimbardo, P. Interpersonal dynamics in a simulated prison.International Journal of Criminology and Penology, 1973,1, 69–97.
Hare, N.Black Anglo-Saxon, New York: Mongani and Mansell, 1965.
Hare, N. Personal correspondence, 1975.
Higgenbotham, A.L. Racism and the American legal process: 1619–1898.Anals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 1973,407, 1–17.
Hilliard, A. The strength and weakness of cognitive tests for young children. In J.D. Andrew (Ed.)One Child Indivisible. Washington, D.C.: National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1975.
Hilliard, A. A review of Leon Kamin's the science and politics of I.Q.Journal of Black Psychology, 1976,2, 64–74.
Hilliard, T. Personality characteristics of Black student activists and non-activists. In R. L. Jones (ed)Black Psychology. New York: Harper and Row, 1972.
Hilliard, T. The Angela Davis trial: Role of black psychologists in jury selection and court consultation.Journal of Black Psychology, 1974,1, 56–60.
Hilliard, T. A psychological evaluation of the adjustment center in San Quentin Prison.Journal of Black Psychology, 1976,2, 75–82.
Hobson v. Hansen, 269 F. Supp. 402 (1 D.D.C., 1967).
Howard, J. Toward a social psychology of colonialism. In R. L. Jones (Ed.)Black Psychology. New York: Harper and Row, 1972.
Jensen, A.R. How much can we bost I.Q. in scholastic achievement?Harvard Educational Review 1969,39, 1–23.
Jones, E. Social class and psychotherapy: A critical review of research.Psychiatry. 1974,37, 307–320.
Jones, R. Labeling children culturally deprived and culturally disadvantaged. In R. L. Jones (Ed.)Black Psychology. New York: Harper and Row, 1972.
Jones, R.Black Psychology, New York: Harper and Row, 1972.
Jordan, W.D.White over Black. Chapel Hill: North Carolina Press, 1968.
Kamin, L.The Science and Politics of I.Q. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1974.
Kirp, D. Schools as sorters: The constitutional and policy implications of student classification.University of Pennsylvania Law Review, 1973,121, 705–797.
Knowles, L., & Prewitt, K. Racism in the administration of justice. In C. Reasons & J. Kuykendall (Eds.)Race, Crime and Justice. Pacific Palisades, California: Goodyear, 1972.
Korman, M.Levels and Patterns of Professional Training in Psychology. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 1976.
Larry, P. v. Wilson Riles, 343 F. Supp. 1306 (1972).
Lener, M. Evaluation of performance as a function of performer's reward and attractiveness.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1965,1, 355–360.
Litwack, T. Judge Bazelon v. psychiatry: An analysis of Smith v. Schlesinger.American Psychology-Law Society Newsletter, 1976,8, 11–12.
Myrdal, G.An American Dilemma, Vols. I & II. New York: Harper and Row, 1944.
National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders.Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders. New York: Bantam, 1968.
N.A.A.C.P. v. Beecher, 371 F. Supp. 507 (D. Mass. 1971).
N.A.A.C.P.Report on Minority Testing. New York: N.A.A.C.P., 1976.
National Minority Conference on Human Experimentation.Summary report and recommendations. Unpublished report, 1976.
People v. Gorshen, 51 Cal. 2d 716, 336 P. 2d 492 (1959).
People v. Wells, 33 Cal. 2d 330, 220 P. 2d 53 (1949).
Postman, L., & Crutchfield R. The interaction of need, set, and stimulus structure in a cognitive task.American Journal of Psychology, 1952,65, 196–217.
Prosser, W. L.Handbook of the Law of Torts. St. Paul, Minnesota: West, 1971.
Sage, W. Psychology and the Angela Davis jury.Human Behavior, 1973,2, 56–61.
Sattler, J. M.Assessment of Children's Intelligence. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders 1974.
Shapiro, D.Neurotic Styles. New York: Basic Books, 1965.
Slovenko, R.Psychiatry and Law. Boston: Little, Brown, 1975.
Smith v. Schlesinger, 513 F. 2d 462 (D. C. Cir., 1975).
Sorgen, M. Testing and tracking in public schools.Hasting Law Journal. 1976,24, 1129–1190.
Spain et al. v. Procunier, 408 F. Supp. 534 (N.D. Cal. 1976).
Suggs, D., & Sales, B.D. The art and science of conducting the voir dire.Professional Psychology 1978,9, 367–388.
Swett, D. Cultural bias in the American legal system. In C. Reasons & J. Kuykendall (Eds.)Race, Crime and Justice. Pacific Palisades, California: Goodyear, 1972.
Tapp, J. Psychology and the law: An overture.Annual Review of Psychology, 1976,27, 359–404.
Thomas, A., & Sillen, R.Racism and Psychiatry. New York: Bruner/Mazel, 1972.
Thornberry, T.P. Race, socio-economic status and sentencing in the juvenile justice system.Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 1973,64, 90–98.
Weihofen, H., & Overholser, W. Mental disorder affecting the degree of a crime.Yale Law Journal, 1947,56, 959–981.
Western Addition Community Organization v. Alioto, 340 F. Supp. 1351 (N.D. Cal. 1972).
Williams, R. Abuses and misuses in testing Black children.Counselling Psychologist. 1971,2, 62–73.
Zimbardo, P. Affidavit prepared for Spain v. Procunier, July, 1974.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
About this article
Cite this article
Hilliard, T.O. Psychology, law, and the black community. Law Hum Behav 2, 107–131 (1978). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01040387
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01040387