Abstract
This study examined feelings of anger among female victims of crime and the relation of anger to the development of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). One hundred and sixteen women who had been victims of sexual or nonsexual criminal assaults were compared to a matched comparison group of 50 nonvictimized women on measures of anger and anger expression. Results indicate that victims were angrier than nonvictims. The level of anger was related to various aspects of the assault, such as the use of a weapon and the victim's response to the attack. In addition, the results indicate that elevated anger is positively related to the development of PTSD. Results are discussed in relation to a cognitive/behavioral conceptualization of PTSD.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
American Psychiatric Association (1987).Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (third edition-revised), Washington, D.C.: Author.
Atkeson, B., Calhoun, K., Resick, P., and Ellis, E. (1982). Victims of rape: Repeated assessment of depressive symptoms.J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 50: 96–102.
Burgess, A. W., and Holmstrom, L. L. (1974). The rape trauma syndrome.Am. J. Psychiatry 131: 981–986.
Butler, P. (1975). The treatment of severe agoraphobia employing induced anger as an anxiety inhibitor: A case study.J. Behav. Ther. Exp. Psychiatry 6: 327–329.
Calhoun, K. S., Atkeson, B. M., and Resick, P. A. (1982). A longitudinal examination of fear reactions of victims of rape.J. Counsel. Psychol. 29: 655–661.
Danesh, H. B. (1977). Anger and fear.Am. J. Psychiatry 1324: 1109–1112.
Deffenbacher, J. L., Demm, P. M., and Brandon, A. D. (1986). High general anger: Correlates and treatment.Behav. Res. Ther. 24: 481–489.
Deffenbacher, J. L., Story, D. A., Brandon, A. D., Hogg, J. A., and Hazaleus, S. L. (1988). Cognitive and cognitive-relaxation treatments of anger.Cogn. Ther. Res. 12: 167–184.
Ellis, E. M., Atkeson, B. M., and Calhoun, K. S. (1981). An assessment of long-term reaction to rape.J. Abnorm. Psychol. 90: 263–266.
Fairbank, J. A., Gross, R. T., and Keane, T. M. (1983). Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: Evaluation of outcome with a behavioral code.Behav. Mod. 7: 557–568.
Fairbank, J. A., and Keane, T. M. (1982). Flooding for combat-related stress disorders: Assessment of anxiety reduction across traumatic memories.Behav. Ther. 13: 499–510.
Frank, E., and Stewart, B. D. (1984). Depressive symptoms in rape victims.J. Affec. Dis. 1: 269–277.
Foa, E. B., and Kozak, M. J. (1986). Emotional processing of fear: Exposure to corrective information.Psychological Bull. 99: 20–35.
Foa, E. B., Rothbaum, B. O., Riggs, D., and Murdock, T. (1991).Treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder in rape victims. (Unpublished manuscript).
Foa, E. B., Steketee, G., and Rothbaum, B. O. (1989). Behavioral/cognitive conceptualization of post-traumatic stress disorder.Behav. Ther. 20: 155–176.
Goldstein, A. J., Serber, M., and Piaget, G. (1970). Induced anger as a reciprocal inhibitor of fear.J. Behav. Ther. Exp. Psychiatry 1: 67–70.
Horowitz, M. J. (1986).Stress-Response Syndromes (second edition), Jason Aronson Northvale, NJ.
Horowitz, M. J., Wilner, N., and Alvarez, W. (1979). Impact of event scale: A measure of subjective distress.Psychosom. Med. 41: 207–218.
Hyer, L., O'Leary, W. C., Saucer, R. T., Blount, J., Harrison, W. R., and Boudewyns, P. A. (1986). Inpatient diagnosis of posttreatment stress disorder.J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 54: 698–702.
Janoff-Bulman, R., and Frieze, I. H. (1983). A theoretical perspective for understanding reactions to victimization.J. Social Issues 38: 1–17.
Kilpatrick, D. G., Resick, P. A., and Veronen, L. J. (1981). Effects of a rape experience: A longitudinal study.J. Social Issues 37: 105–122.
Kilpatrick, D. G., Saunders, B., Amick-McMullan, A., Best, C., Veronen, L., and Resnick, H. (1989). Victim and crime factors associated with the development of post-traumatic stress disorder.Behav. Ther. 20: 199–214.
Kilpatrick, D. G., Saunders, B. E., Veronen, L. J., Best, C. L., and Von, J. M. (1987). Criminal victimization: Lifetime prevalence, reporting to police, and psychological impact.Crime Delinq. 33: 479–489.
Kilpatrick, D. G., and Veronen, L. J. (1984).Treatment of Fear and Anxiety in Victims of Rape (Final Report, Grant No. R01 MH29602), National Institute of Mental Health, Rockville, MD.
Kilpatrick, D. G., Veronen, L. J., and Resick, P. A. (1979). The aftermath of rape: Recent empirical findings.Am. J. Orthopsychiatry 49: 658–659.
Lee, J. A. B., and Rosenthal, S. J. (1983). Working with victims of violent assault.J. Contemp. Social Work December, 593–601.
Lurigio, A. J. (1987). Are victims all alike? The adverse, generalized, and differential impact of crime.Crime Delinq. 33: 452–467.
McCahill, T. W., Meyer, L. C., and Fischman, A. M. (1979).The Aftermath of Rape, Heath and Company, Lexington, MA.
Nadelson, C. C., Notman, M. T., Zackson, H., and Gornick, J. (1982). A follow-up study of rape victims.Am. J. Psychiatry 139: 1266–1270.
Novaco, R. W. (1975).Anger Control: The Development and Evaluation of an Experimental Treatment, Heath, Lexington, MA.
Polivy, J. (1981). On the induction of emotion in the laboratory: Discrete moods or multiple affect states?J. Personal. Social Psychol. 41: 803–817.
Resick, P. (1987).Reactions of female and male victims of rape or robbery (Final Report, Grant No. MH37296), National Institute of Justice, Wasington, DC.
Resick, P. A., Jordan, C. G., Girelli, S. A., Hutter, C. K., and Marhoefer Dvorak, S. (1988). A comparative outcome study of behavioral group therapy for sexual assault victims.Behav. Ther. 19: 385–401.
Riggs, D. S., Foa, E. B., Rothbaum, B. O., and Murdock, T. (1991). Post-traumatic stress disorder following rape and non-sexual assault: A predictive model. (Unpublished manuscript).
Rothbaum, B. O., Dancu, C., Riggs, D. S., and Foa, E. (1990, September).The PTSD Symptom Scale, Presented at the European Association of Behavior Therapy Annual Conference, Paris, France.
Rothbaum, B. O., Foa, E. B., Murdock, T., Riggs, D., and Walsh, W. (1991).Post-traumatic stress disorder following rape (Unpublished manuscript).
Sales, E., Baum, M., and Shore, B. (1984). Victim readjustment following assault.J. Social Issues 40: 17–36.
Schindler, F. E. (1980). Treatment of systematic desensitization of a recurring nightmare of a real life trauma.J. Behav. Ther. Exp. Psychiatry 11: 53–54.
Spielberger, C. D. (1988). Anger Expression Scale. In Hersen, M., and Bellack, A. S. (eds.),Dictionary of Behavioral Assessment Techniques Pergamon Press, New York, pp. 27–29.
Spielberger, C. D. (1988). Manual for the state-trait anger expression inventory. In Hersen, M., and Bellack, A. S. (eds.),Dictionary of Behavioral Assessment Techniques, Pergamon Press, New York, pp. 446–448.
Veronen, L. J., and Kilpatrick, D. G. (1982, November). Stress inoculation training for victims of rape: Efficacy and differential findings. Presented in a symposium entitled “Sexual Violence and Harassment” at the 16th Annual Convention of the Association for Advancement of Behavior Therapy, Los Angeles, CA.
Woolfolk, R. L., and Grady, D. A. (1988). Combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder: Patterns of symptomatology in help-seeking Vietnam veterans.J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 176: 107–111.
Yassen, J., and Glass, L. (1984). Sexual assault survivors groups: A feminist practice perspective.Social Work May–June, 252–257.
Zillman, (1979).Aggression and Hostility, Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ.
Zwemer, W. A., and Deffenbacher, J. L. (1984). Irrational beliefs, anger, and anxiety.J. Counsel. Psychol. 31: 391–393.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
About this article
Cite this article
Riggs, D.S., Dancu, C.V., Gershuny, B.S. et al. Anger and post-traumatic stress disorder in female crime victims. J Trauma Stress 5, 613–625 (1992). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00979229
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00979229