Abstract
The archaeological history of Belize now spans, in a sense, 183 years. For all but the past quarter-century of that time, research in the country has ranged from sporadic to nonexistent. In recent years, however, forces both internal and external to Belize have brought about an explosion of fieldwork and reporting, as well as wide-ranging analyses, problem-focused studies, and the beginnings of placement of Belize in a theoretical frame. Review of the development of archaeological research in the country establishes a base on which to rest discussion of themes in current work, as well as the impact of Belizean data as regards changes in our assessment of Maya prehistory as a whole.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adams, R. E. W. (1982). Rank size analysis of northern Belize Maya sites. In Hester, T. R., Shafer, H. J., and Eaton, J. D. (eds.),Archaeology at Colha, Belize: The 1981 Interim Report, University of Texas, San Antonio, pp. 60–64.
Adams, R. E. W., and Valdez, F. (1980). The ceramic sequence of Colha, Belize: 1979 and 1980 seasons. In Hester, T., Eaton, J., and Shafer, H. (eds.),The Colha Project Second Season, 1980 Interim Report, University of Texas, San Antonio, pp. 15–40.
Anderson, A. H. (1958). Recent discoveries at the Caracol site.Proceedings of the 32nd International Congress of Americanists, Copenhagen, Denmark, pp. 494–499.
Anderson, A. H. (1959). More discoveries at Caracol, British Honduras.Proceedings of the 33rd International Congress of Americanists, San José, Costa Rica, pp. 221–218.
Anderson, A. H., and Cook, H. J. (1944). Archaeological finds near Douglas, British Honduras.Carnegie Institution of Washington Notes on Middle American Archaeology and Ethnology, 40, Carnegie Institution, Washington, D.C.
Andrews, E. W., V, and Hammond, N. (1990). Redefinition of the Swasey phase at Cuello, Belize.American Antiquity 54 570–584.
Antoine, P. P., Skarie, R. L., and Bloom, P. R. (1982). The origin of raised fields near San Antonio, Belize: An alternative hypothesis. In Flannery, K. P. (ed.),Maya Subsistence: Essays in Memory of Dennis E. Puleston, Academic Press, New York, pp. 227–236.
Awe, J. (1991). Lithic studies from a Belizean perspective. In Hester, T. R., and Shafer, H. J. (eds.),Maya Stone Tools: Selected Papers from the Second Maya Lithic Conference, Prehistory Press, Madison, Wis. pp. 267–269.
Awe, J., and Campbell, M. D. (1988). Site core investigations at Cahal Pech, Cayo District, Belize: Preliminary report of the 1988 season. Ms. on file, Department of Anthropology, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario.
Awe, J., and Campbell, M. D. (1989). Preliminary spatial analysis of the site core at Cahal Pech, Belize and its implication to lowland Maya social organization. Ms. on file, Department of Anthropology, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario.
Ball, J. F., and Taschek, J. T. (1991). Late classic lowland Maya political organization and central-place analysis: New insights from the upper Belize Valley.Ancient Mesoamerica 2 149–165.
Bancroft, H. H. (1983).The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft: The Native Races (5 vols.), A. L. Bancroft, San Francisco.
Beetz, C., and Satterthwaite, L. (1981). The monuments and inscriptions of Caracol, Belize.University Museum Monographs, 45, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
Bloom, P. R., Pohl, M., Buttleman, C., Wiseman, F., Covich, A., Miksicek, C., Ball, J., and Stein, J. (1983). Prehistoric Maya wetland agriculture and the alluvial soils near San Antonio, Rio Hondo, Belize.Nature 301 417–419.
Bullard, W. R., Jr. (1965). Stratigraphic excavations at San Estevan, British Honduras.Royal Ontario Museum Art and Archaeology Occasional Papers, 9, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto.
Bullard, W. R., Jr. (1973). Postclassic culture in central Peten and adjacent British Honduras. In Culbert, T. P. (ed.),The Classic Maya Collapse, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 221–241.
Bullard, W. R., Jr., and Bullard, M. R. (1965). Late classic finds at Baking Pot, British Honduras.Royal Ontario Museum Art and Archaeology Occasional Papers, 8, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto.
Carr, H. S. (1986).Faunal Utilization in a Late Preclassic Maya Community at Cerros, Belize, Ph.D. dissertation, Tulane University, New Orleans.
Castells, F. de P. (1904). The ruins of Indian Church in British Honduras.American Antiquarian and Oriental Journal 26(1): 32–37.
Chase, A. F., and Chase, D. Z. (1981). Archaeological investigations at Nohmul and Santa Rita, Belize: 1979–1980.Mexicon 3 42–44.
Chase, A. F., and Chase, D. Z. (1987a). Investigations at the classic Maya city of Caracol, Belize: 1985–1987.Pre-Columbian Art Research Institute Monographs, 3, San Francisco.
Chase, A. F., and Chase, D. Z. (1987b). Putting together the pieces: Maya pottery of central Belize and central Pete, Guatemala. In Rice, P. M., and Sharer, R. J. (eds.),Maya Ceramics: Papers from the 1985 Maya Ceramic Conference, BAR, Oxford, pp. 47–72.
Chase, A. F., and Chase, D. Z. (1989). The investigation of classic period Maya warfare at Caracol, Belize.Mayab 5 5–18.
Chase, D. Z. (1982a).Spatial and Temporal Variability in Postclassic Northern Belize. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
Chase, D. Z. (1982b). The Ikilik ceramic complex at Nohmul, northern Belize.Ceramica de Cultura Maya 12 71–81.
Chase, D. Z. (1984). The late postclassic pottery of Santa Rita Corozal, Belize: The Xabalxab ceramic complex.Ceramica de Cultura Maya 13 18–26.
Chase, D. Z. (1985). Ganned but not forgotten: Late postclassic archaeology and ritual at Santa Rita Corozal, Belize. In Chase, A. F., and Rice, P. M. (eds.),The Lowland Maya Postclassic, University of Texas Press, Austin, pp. 104–125.
Chase, D. Z., and Chase, A. F. (1982). Yucatec influence in terminal classic northern Belize.American Antiquity 47 596–614.
Chase, D. Z., and Chase, A. F. (1988). A postclassic perspective: Excavations at the Maya site of Santa Rita Corozal, Belize.Pre-Columbian Art Research Institute Monographs, 4, San Francisco.
Chase, D. Z., and Chase, A. F. (1989). Routes of trade and communication and the integration of Maya society: The vista from Santa Rita Corozal, Belize. In McKillop, H., and Healy, P. F. (eds.), Coastal Maya Trade.Trent University Occasional Papers in Anthropology, 8, pp. 19–32.
Cliff, M. B. (1982).Lowland Maya Nucleation: A Case Study from Northern Belize, Ph.D. dissertation, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, Tex.
Cliff, M. B. (1986). Excavations in the late preclassic nucleated village. In Robertson, R. A., and Freidel, D. A. (eds.),Archaeology at Cerros, Belize, Central America, Volume I: An Interim Report, Southern Methodist University Press, Dallas, Texas, pp. 45–63.
Coe, W. R., and Coe, M. D. (1956). Excavations at Nohoch Ek, British Honduras.American Antiquity 21 370–382.
Cohen, M. N., Bennett, S., and Armstrong, C. (1989). Health and genetic relationships in a colonial Mayan population. Final report to the National Science Foundation on Grant 85-06875, SUNY, Plattsburgh, N. Y.
Digby, A. (1958). A new Maya city discovered in British Honduras; First excavations at Las Cuevas and an underground necropolis revealed.Illustrated London News 232 274–275.
Dreiss, M. (1989). An obsidian distribution model for the Belize periphery. In McKillop, H., and Healy, P. F. (eds.), Coastal Maya Trade.Trent University Occasional Papers in Anthropology, 8, pp. 79–90.
Eaton, J. D. (1985). Colha: An overview of architecture and settlement. In Hester, T., Shafer, H., and Eaton, J. (eds.),Archaeology at Colha, Belize: The 1981 Interim Report, University of Texas, San Antonio, pp. 11–20.
Emery, K. (1990).Colonial Period Dietary Strategies in the Southern Maya Lowlands: Spanish Conquest or Maya Conservatism? M.A. thesis, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario.
Fedick, S. L. (1988).Prehistoric Maya Settlement and Land Use Patterns in the Upper Belize River Area, Belize, Central America, University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Fedick, S. L. (1989). The economics of agricultural land use and settlement in the upper Belize Valley. In McAnany, P. A., and Isaac, B. L. (eds.), Prehistoric Maya economies of Belize.Research in Economic Anthropology, Supplement 4, JAI Press, Greenwich, Conn., pp. 215–253.
Ford, A. (1990). Settlement and environment in the upper Belize River area and variability in household organization in the central Maya lowlands. In Culbert, T. P., and Rice, D. S. (eds.),Prehistoric Population History in the Maya Lowlands, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 167–182.
Ford, A., and Fedick, S. (1992). Prehistoric Maya settlement patterns in the upper Belize River area: Initial results of the Belize River Archaeological Settlement Survey.Journal of Field Archaeology 19 35–49.
Franks, A. W. (1877). Stone implements from Honduras, exhibited by Captain Melford Campbell.Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 6 37–40.
Freidel, D. A. (1977). A late preclassic monumental mask at Cerros, northern Belize.Journal of Field Archaeology 4 488–491.
Freidel, D. A. (1978). Maritime adaptation and the rise of Maya civilization: the view from Cerros, Belize. In Stark, B. L., and Voorhies, B. (eds.),Prehistoric Coastal Adaptations: The Economy and Ecology of Maritime Middle America, Academic Press, New York, pp. 239–265.
Freidel, D. A. (1979). Culture areas and interaction spheres: Contrasting approaches to the emergence of civilization in the Maya lowlands.American Antiquity 44 36–54.
Freidel, D. A. (1986). The monumental architecture. In Robertson, R. A., and Freidel, D. A. (eds.),Archaeology at Cerros, Belize, Central America, Volume I: An Interim Report, Southern Methodist University Press, Dallas, Texas, pp. 1–22.
Freidel, D. A., and Scarborough, V. (1982). Subsistence, trade, and development of the coastal Maya. In Flannery, K. V. (ed.),Maya Subsistence: Studies in Memory of Dennis E. Puleston, Academic Press, New York, pp. 131–155.
Froebel, J. (1859).Seven Years' Travel in Central America, Northern Mexico and the Far West of the United States. R. Bentley, London.
Gann, T. W. F. (1984–1895). On exploration of two mounds in British Honduras.Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of London (n.s.) 15 430–434.
Gann, T. W. F. (1896–1897). On the contents of some ancient mounds in Central America.Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of London (n.s.) 16 308–317.
Gann, T. W. F. (1900). Mounds in northern Honduras.Bureau of American Ethnology Annual Reports, 19, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., pp. 655–692.
Gann, T. W. F. (1911). Explorations carried on in British Honduras in 1908–1909.Liverpool Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology 4 72–87.
Gann, T. W. F. (1914–1916). Report on some excavations in British Honduras.Liverpool Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology 7 28–42.
Gann, T. W. F. (1918). The Maya Indians of southern Yucatan and northern British Honduras.Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletins, 64, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Gann, T. W. F. (1925).Mystery Cities: Exploration and Adventure in Lubaantun. Duckworth, London.
Gann, T. W. F. (1926).Ancient Cities and Modern Tribes: Exploration and Adventure in Maya Lands. Duckworth, London.
Gann, T. W. F. (1927).Maya Cities: A Record of Exploration and Adventure in Middle America. Duckworth, London.
Gann, T. W. F. (1938). Finds in Maya mounds: New discoveries in British Honduras.Illustrated London News 192(5153): 122–129.
Gann, T. W. F. (1943). Painted stucco heads from Louisville, British Honduras.Middle American Research Records, Vol. I, Middle American Research Institut, New Orleans, pp. 13–16.
Gann, T. W. F., and Gann, M. (1939). Archaeological investigations in the Corozal District of British Honduras.Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletins, 123, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., pp. 1–59.
Garber, J. F. (1981).Material Culture and Patterns of Artifact Consumption and Disposal at the Maya Site of Cerros in Northern Belize, University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Garber, J. F. (1983). Patterns of jade consumption and disposal at Cerros, Belize.American Antiquity 48 800–807.
Garber J. F. (1985). Long distance trade and regional exchange at the Maya community of Cerros in northern Belize.Mexicon 7 3–16.
Garber, J. F. (1989).Archaeology at Cerros, Belize, Volume II: The Artifacts, Southern Methodist University Press, Dallas, Tex.
Gerhardt, J. C. (1988).Preclassic Maya Architecture at Cuello, Belize, BAR, Oxford.
Gibson, E. C. (1991). A preliminary functional and contextual study of constricted adzes from northern Belize. In Hester, T. R., and Shafer, H. J. (eds.),Maya Stone Tools: Selected Papers from the Second Maya Lithic Conference, Prehistory Press, Madison, Wis., pp. 229–237.
Gifford, J. C. (1976). Prehistoric pottery analysis and the ceramics of Barton Ramie in the Belize Valley.Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Memoirs, 18, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.
Giglioli, E. H. (1891). Una recente esplorazione del'Honduras inglese e singolari strumenti litici ivi scoperti.Archivo per l'antropologia e la etnologia 21 411–413.
Graham, E. (1985a). Facets of terminal to postclassic activity in the Stann Creek District, Belize. In Chase, A. F., and Rice, P. M. (eds.),The Lowland Maya Postclassic, University of Texas Press, Austin, pp. 215–229.
Graham, E. (1985b).The Highlands of the Lowlands: Environment and Archaeology in the Stann Creek District, Belize, University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Graham, E. (1987a). Resource diversity in Belize and its implications for models of lowland trade.American Antiquity 52 753–767.
Graham, E. (1987b). Terminal classic to historic-period vessel forms from Belize. In Rice, P. M., and Sharer, R. J. (eds.),Maya Ceramics: Papers from the 1985 Maya Ceramic Conference, BAR, Oxford, pp. 73–98.
Graham, E. (1989). Brief synthesis of coastal site data from Colson Point, Placencia, and Marco Gonzalez, Belize. In McKillop, H., and Healy, P. f. (eds.), Coastal Maya Trade.Trent University Occasional Papers in Anthropology 8 135–154.
Graham, E. (1991). Archaeological insights into colonial period Maya life at Tipu, Belize. In Thomas, D. H. (ed.),Columbian Consequences, Vol. 3, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D. C., pp. 319–335.
Graham, E., and Bennett, S. (1989). The 1986–1987 excavations at Negroman-Tipu, Belize.Mexicon 11 114–117.
Graham, E., and Pendergast, D. M. (1989). Excavations at the Marco Gonzalez site, Ambergris Cay, Belize.Journal of Field Archaeology 16 1–16.
Graham, E., McNatt, L., and Gutchen, M. (1980). Excavations in Footprint Cave, Caves Branch, Belize.Journal of Field Archaeology 7 153–172.
Graham, E., Jones, G. D., and Kautz, R. R. (1985). Archaeology and ethnohistory on a Spanish colonial frontier: an interim report on the Macal-Tipu Project in western Belize. In Chase, A. F., and Rice, P. M. (eds.),The Lowland Maya Postclassic, University of Texas Press, Austin, pp. 206–214.
Graham, E., Pendergast, D. M., and Jones, G. D. (1989). On the fringes of conquest: Maya-Spanish contact in colonial Belize.Science 246 1254–1259.
Gruning, E. L. (1930). Report on the British Museum expedition to British Honduras, 1930.Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 60 477–482.
Guderjan, T., Garber, J. F., and Smith, H. (1988). San Juan: A Maya trade transshipment point on northern Ambergris Cay, Belize.Mexicon 10 35–37.
Guderjan, T., Garber, J. F., and Smith, H. (1989). Maritime trade on Ambergris Cay, Belize. In McKillop, H., and Healy, P. F. (eds.), Coastal Maya Trade.Trent University Occasional Papers in Anthropology, 8, pp. 123–133.
Haberland, W. (1958). An early mound at Louisville, British Honduras.Man 58 477–484.
Hambly, W. D. (1937). Skeletal material from San Jose ruin, British Honduras.Field Museum of Natural History Anthropological Series, 25(1), Field Museum, Chicago.
Hammond, N. (1970). Excavations at Lubaantun 1970.Antiquity 44 216–223.
Hammond, N. (1972a). Locational models and the site of Lubaantun: A classic Maya centre. In Clarke, D. L. (ed.),Models in Archaeology, Methuen, London, pp. 757–800.
Hammond, N. (1972b). Obsidian trade routes in the Mayan area.Science 178 1092–1093.
Hammond, N. (1972c). The planning of a Maya ceremonial center.Scientific American 226 82–91.
Hammond, N. (ed.) (1973).British Museum-Cambridge University Corozal Project 1973 Interim Report, Centre of Latin American Studies, Cambridge University, Cambridge.
Hammond, N. (1974). Preclassic to postclassic in northern Belize.Antiquity 48 177–189.
Hammond, N. (ed.) (1975a).Archaeology in Northern Belize: 1974–75 Interim Report of the British Museum-Cambridge University Corozal Project, Centre of Latin American Studies, Cambridge University, Cambridge.
Hammond, N. (1975b). Lubaantun: A classic Maya realm.Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Monographs, 2, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.
Hammond, N. (1975c). Maya settlement hierarchy in northern Belize.Contributions of the University of California Archaeological Research Facility 27 40–55.
Hammond, N. (1976). Maya obsidian trade in southern Belize. In Hester, T. R. and Hammond, N. (eds.),Maya Lithic Studies: Papers from the 1976 Belize Field Symposium, University of Texas, San Antonio, pp. 71–811.
Hammond, N. (1977).Ex oriente lux: The view from Belize. In Adams, R. E. W. (ed.),The Origins of Maya Civilization, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 45–766.
Hammond, N. (1981). Settlement patterns in Belize. In Ashmore, W. (ed.),Lowland Maya Settlement Patterns, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 157–186.
Hammond, N. (1982a). The prehistory of Belize.Journal of Field Archaeology 9 349–362.
Hammond, N. (1982b).Ancient Maya Civilization. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, N.J.
Hammond, N. (1983a). The development of Belizean archaeology.Antiquity 57 19–27.
Hammond, N. (1983b). Nohmul, Belize: 1982 investigations.Journal of Field Archaeology 10 245–254.
Hammond, N. (1984). Holmul and Nohmul: A comparison and assessment of two Maya lowland protoclassic sites.Ceramica de Cultura Maya 13 1–17.
Hammond, N. (1985).Nohmul: A Prehistoric Maya Community in Belize. Excavations 1973–1983, BAR, Oxford.
Hammond, N. (1987). The sun also rises: Iconographic syntax of the Pomona flare.Research Reports on Ancient Maya Writing, 7, Center for Maya Research, Washington, D.C.
Hammond, N. (1990).Excavations at Cuello, 1990: A Preliminary Summary. Department of Archaeology, Boston University, Boston.
Hammond, N. (1991a). Archaeological investigations at Cuello, 1975–1987. In Hammond, N. (ed.),Cuello: An Early Maya Community in Belize, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 8–22.
Hammond, N. (ed.) (1991b).Cuello: An Early Maya Community in Belize, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Hammond, N. (1991c). Cuello considered: Summary and conclusion. In Hammond, N. (ed),Cuello: An Early Maya Community in Belize, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 235–248.
Hammond, N. (1991d). The Maya and their civilization. In Hammond, N. (ed.),Cuello: An Early Maya Community in Belize, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 1–7.
Hammond, N. (1991e). Radiocarbon chronology. In Hammond, N. (ed.),Cuello: An Early Maya Community in Belize, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 55–57.
Hammond, N., Pring, D. C., Berger, R., Switsur, V. R., and Ward, A. P. (1976). Radiocarbon chronology for early Maya occupation at Cuello, Belize.Nature 260 579–581.
Hammond, N., Donaghey, S., Berger, R., de Atley, S., Switsur, V. R., and Ward, A. P. (1977). Maya formative phase radiocarbon dates from Belize.Nature 267 608–610.
Hammond, N., Pring, D. C., Wilk, R., Donaghey, S., Saul, F. P., Wing, E. S., Miller, A. V., and Feldman, L. H. (1979). The earliest lowland Maya? Definition of the Swasey phase.American Antiquity 44 92–110.
Hammond, N., Clark, C., Horton, M., Hodges, M., McNatt, L., Kosakowsky, L. A., and Pyburn, A. (1985). Excavation and survey at Nohmul, Belize, 1983.Journal of Field Archaeology 12 177–200.
Hammon, N., Donaghey, S., Gleason, C., Staneko, J. C., Van Tuerenhout, D., and Kosakowsky, L. A. (1987). Excavations at Nohmul, Belize, 1985.Journal of Field Archaeology 14 257–281.
Hammond, N., Pyburn, K. A., Rose, J., Staneko, J. C., and Muyskens, D. (1988). Excavation and survey at Nohmul, Belize, 1986.Journal of Field Archaeology 15 1–15.
Hammond, N., Housley, R. A., and Law, I. A. (1991). The postclassic at Cuello, Belize.Ancient Mesoamerica 2 71–74.
Harrison, P. D. (1983). Pulltrouser Swamp and Maya raised fields: A summation. In Turner, B. L., II, and Harrison, P. D. (eds.),Pulltrouser Swamp: Ancient Maya Habitat, Agriculture, and Settlement in Northern Belize, University of Texas Press, Austin, pp. 246–270.
Harrison, P. D., and Turner, B. L., II (eds.) (1978).Pre-Hispanic Maya Agriculture, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Healy, P. F. (1990). Excavations at Pacbitun, Belize: Preliminary report on the 1986 and 1987 investigations.Journal of Field Archaeology 17 247–262.
Healy, P. F., van Waarden, C., and Anderson, T. J. (1980). Nueva evidencia de antiguas terrazas Maya en Belice.América Indígena 40 773–796.
Healy, P. F., Lambert, J. D. H., Arnason, J. T., and Hebda, R. J. (1983). Caracol, Belize: evidence of ancient Maya agricultural terraces.Journal of Field Archaeology 10 397–410.
Healy, P. F., McKillop, H., and Walsh, B. (1984). Analysis of obsidian from Moho Cay, Belize: New evidence on classic Maya trade routes.Science 225 414–417.
Henderson, Captain G. (1809).An Account of the British Settlement of Honduras; Being a Brief View of Its Commercial and Agricultural Resources, Soil, Climate, Natural History, &c. To Which Are Added Sketches of the Manners and Customs of the Mosquito Indians, Preceded by a Journal of a Voyage to the Mosquito Shore ..., C. and R. Baldwin, London.
Hester, T. R. (ed.) (1979).The Colha Project 1979: A Collection of Interim Papers, University of Texas, San Antonio.
Hester, T. R. (1985). The Maya lithic sequence in northern Belize. In Plew, M. G., Woods, J. C., and Pavesic, M. G. (eds.),Stone Tool Analysis: Essays in Honor of Don E. Crabtree, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 187–210.
Hester, T. R., Eaton, J. D., and Shafer, H. J. (eds.) (1980).The Colha Project, Second Season, 1980 Interim Report, University of Texas, San Antonio.
Hester, T. R., and Shafer, H. J. (1984). Exploitation of chert resources by the ancient Maya in northern Belize.World Archaeology 16 157–173.
Hester, T. R., Shafer, H. J., and Eaton, J. D. (eds.) (1982).Archaeology at Colha, Belize: The 1981 Interim Report, University of Texas, San Antonio.
Hester, T. R., Shafer, H. J., Kelly, T. C., and Ligabue, G. (1982). Observations on the patination process and the context of antiquity: A fluted projectile point from Belize, Central America.Lithic Technology 11 (2): 29–34.
Hester, T. R., and Shafer, H. J. (1991). Lithics of the early postclassic at Colha, Belize. In Hester, T. R., and Shafer, H. J. (eds.),Maya Stone Tools: Selected Papers from the Second Maya Lithic Conference, Prehistory Press, Madison, Wis., pp. 155–161.
Heye, G. G. (1925). Eccentric chipped objects from British Honduras.Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, Indian Notes, 2, Heye Foundation, New York, pp. 99–102.
Jackson, L. J., and McKillop, H. (1989). Defining coastal Maya trading ports and transportation routes. In McKillop, H., and Healy, P. F. (eds.), Coastal Maya Trade.Trent University Occasional Papers in Anthropology, 8, pp. 91–110.
Jones, G. D. (1989).Maya Resistance to Spanish Rule: Time and History on a Colonial Frontier, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Joyce, T. A. (1926). Report on the investigations at Lubaantun, British Honduras.Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 56 207–230.
Joyce, T. A. (1929). Report on the British Museum expedition to British Honduras, 1929.Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 59 439–459.
Joyce, T. A. (1933). The pottery whistle-figurines of Lubaantun.Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 63 xv-xxv.
Joyce, T. A., Clark, J. C., and Thompson, J. E. S. (1927). Report on the British Museum expedition to British Honduras, 1927.Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 57 295–323.
Joyce, T. A., Gann, T., Gruning, E. L., and Long, R. C. E. (1928). Report on the British Museum expedition to British Honduras, 1928.Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 58 323–350.
Justeson, J. S., Norman, W. M., and Hammond, N. (1988). The Pomona flare: A preclassic Maya hieroglyphic text. In Benson, E. P., and Griffin, G. G. (eds.),Maya Iconography, Princeton University Press, N.J. pp. 94–151.
Kidder, A. V., and Ekholm, G. F. (1951). Some archaeological specimens from Pomona, British Honduras.Carnegie Institution of Washington Notes on Middle American Archaeology and Ethnology, 102, Carnegie Institution, Washington, D. C.
Kosakowsky, L. (1987). Preclassic Maya pottery at Cuello, Belize.University of Arizona Anthropological Papers, 47, University of Arizona, Tucson.
Lambert, J. D. H., and Arnason, J. T. (1978). Distribution of vegetation on Maya ruins and its relationship to ancient land use.Turrialba 28(1): 33–41.
Lambert, J. D. H., and Arnason, J. T. (1983). Ancient Maya land-use and potential agricultural productivity at Lamanai, Belize. In Durch, J. P. (ed.),Drained Field Agriculture in Central and South America, BAR, Oxford, pp. 111–122.
Lane Fox, A. (1857). A flint implement brought from Honduras.Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of London 5 93–95.
Lefroy, H. (1884). On some pottery, flint weapons, and other objects from British Honduras.The Archaeological Journal 41 47–53.
Leventhal, R. M. (1983). Pusilha. Survey and Excavations, 1979 and 1980. Ms. on file, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Los Angeles.
Leventhal, R. M. (1990). Southern Belize: An ancient Maya Region. In Clancy, F. S., and Harrison, P. D. (eds.),Vision and Revision in Maya Studies, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 125–141.
Lewenstein, S. M. (1984).Stone Tool Use at Cerros, a Late Preclassic Site on the North Coast of Belize, University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Lewenstein, S. M. (1986). Feature 11 and the quest for the elusive domestic structure: A preliminary reconstruction based on chipped stone use. In Robertson, R. A., and Freidel, D. A. (eds.),Archaeology at Cerros, Belize, Central America, Volume I: An Interim Report, Southern Methodist University Press, Dallas, Tex., pp. 65–73.
Lewenstein, S. M. (1987).Stone Tool Use at Cerros: The Ethnoarchaeological and Use-Wear Evidence, University of Texas Press, Austin.
Lewenstein, S. M. (1991). Woodworking tools at Cerros. In Hester, T. R., and Shafer, H. J.,Maya Stone Tools: Selected Papers of the Second Maya Lithic Conference, Prehistory Press, Madison, Wis., pp. 239–249.
MacKie, E. W. (1961). New light on the end of classic Maya culture at Benque Viejo, British Honduras.American Antiquity 27 216–224.
Mackie, E. W. (1985).Excavations at Xunantunich and Pomona, Belize, in 1959–60: A Ceremonial Centre and Earthen Mound of the Maya Classic Period. BAR, Oxford.
MacKinnon, J. J. (1985). The Point Placencia Archaeological Project 1984–85 fieldwork.Mexicon 7 80–83.
MacKinnon, J. J. (1989). Coastal Maya trade routes in southern Belize. In McKillop, H., and Healy, P. F. (eds.), Coastal Maya Trade.Trent University Occasional Papers in Anthropology, 8, pp. 111–122.
MacKinnon, J. J., and Kepecs, S. M. (1989). Prehispanic saltmaking in Belize: New evidence.American Antiquity 54 522–533.
MacLeod, B., and Puleston, D. E. (1978). Pathways into darkness: The search for the road to Xibalbá.Tercera Mesa Redonda de Palenque, Vol. 4, Pre-Columbian Art Research Center, Palenque, Chiapas, Mexico, pp. 71–77.
MacNeish, R. S. (1981).Second Annual Report of the Belize Archaic Archaeological Reconnaissance, R. S. Peabody Foundation, Andover, Mass.
MacNeish, R. S. (1982).Third Annual Report of the Belize Archaic Archaeological Reconnaissance, R. S. Peabody Foundation, Andover, Mass.
MacNeish, R. S., and Nelken-Turner, A. (1983). The preceramic of Mesoamerica.Journal of Field Archaeology 10 71–84.
MacNeish, R. S., Wilkerson, S. J. K., and Nelken-Turner, A. (1980).First Annual Report of the Belize Archaic Archaeological Reconnaissance, R. S. Peabody Foundation, Andover, Mass.
Mason, G. (1928). Pottery and other artifacts from caves in British Honduras and Guatemala.Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, Indian Notes and Monographs, 47, Heye Foundation, New York.
Massey, V. (1989). The human skeletal remains from a terminal classic skull pit at Colha, Belize.Papers of the Colha Project, 3, University of Texas, Austin, and Texas A&M University, College Station.
Mathews, P. (1979). The glyphs on the ear ornaments from Tomb A-1/1. In Pendergast, D. M.,Excavations at Altun Ha, Belize, 1964–1970, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, pp. 79–80.
Mathews, P., and Pendergast, D. M. (1979). The Altun Ha jade plaque: Deciphering the inscription.Contributions of the University of California Archaeological Facility, 41, pp. 197–214.
McAnany, P., and Isaac, B. (eds.) (1989). Prehistoric Maya economics of Belize.Research in Economic Anthropology, Supplement 4, JAI Press, Greenwich, Conn.
McKillop, H. (1981).Moho Cay, Belize: Preliminary Investigations of Trade, Settlement and Marine Resource Exploitation, M.A. thesis, Department of Anthropology, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario.
McKillop, H. (1982). Wild Cane Cay archaeological project, 1982 season.Mexicon 4 88–89.
McKillop, H. (1984). Prehistoric Maya reliance on marine resources: Analysis of a midden from Moho Cay, Belize.Journal of Field Archaeology 11 25–35.
McKillop, H. (1985). Prehistoric exploitation of the manatee in Maya and circum-Caribbean areas.World Archaeology 16 337–353.
McKillop, H. (1987).Wild Cane Cay, Belize: An Insular Classic Period to Post-Classic Period Maya Trading Station, Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Santa Barbara.
McKillop, H., and Awe, J. (1983). The history of archaeological research in Belize.Belizean Studies 11(2): 1–9.
McKillop, H., and Healy, P. F. (eds.) (1989). Coastal Maya trade.Department of Anthropology Occasional Papers, 8, Trent University, Peterborough.
McKillop, H., and Jackson, L. J. (1989). Maya obsidian sources and trade routes. In McKillop, H., and Healy, P. F. (eds.), Coastal Maya Trade.Trent University Occasional Papers in Anthropology, 8, pp. 59–77.
McKillop, H., Jackson, L. J., Michel, H., Stross, F., and Asaro, F. (1988). Chemical source analysis of Maya obsidian: New perspectives from Wild Cane Cay, Belize. In Farquhar, R. M., Hancock, R. G. V., and Pavlish, L. A. (eds.),Proceedings of the 26th International Archaeometry Symposium, Archaeometry Laboratory, Department of Physics, University of Toronto, Toronto, pp. 239–244.
Meighan, C. W., and Bennyhoff, J. A. (1951). A shell snake effigy from British Honduras.American Antiquity 16 352–353.
Mitchum, B. A. (1986). Chipped stone artifacts. In Robertson, R. A., and Freidel, D. A. (eds.),Archaeology at Cerros, Belize, Central America, Volume I: An Interim Report, Southern Methodist University Press, Dallas, Tex., pp. 105–115.
Mitchum, B. A. (1991). Lithic artifacts from Cerros, Belize: Production, consumption, and trade. In Hester, T. R., and Shafer, H. J. (eds.),Maya Stone Tools: Selected Papers from the Second Maya Lithic Conference, Prehistory Press, Madison, Wis., pp. 45–53.
Palacio, J. O. (1977). Excavation at Hokeb Ha, Belize.Belize Institute for Social Research and Action Occasional Publications, 3, Belize City.
Pendergast, D. M. (1962). Breve reconocimiento arqueológico en Honduras Británica.Estudios de Cultura Maya 2 197–203.
Pendergast, D. M. (1966). Ocupación post-clásica en Altun Ha, Honduras Británica.Revista Mexicana de Estudios Antropológicos 21 213–224.
Pendergast, D. M. (ed.) (1969a). Palenque: The Walker-Caddy Expedition to the Ancient Maya City, 1839–1840, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.
Pendergast, D. M. (1969b). The Prehistory of Actun Balam, British Honduras.Royal Ontario Museum Art and Archaeology Occasional Papers, 16, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto.
Pendergast, D. M. (1970a). A. H. Anderson's excavations at Rio Frio Cave E, British Honduras.Royal Ontario Museum Art and Archaeology Occasional Papers, 19, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto.
Pendergast, D. M. (1970b). Evidence of early Teotihuacán—lowland Maya contact at Altun Ha.American Antiquity 36 455–460.
Pendergast, D. M. (1970c). Excavations at Eduardo Quiroz Cave, British Honduras (Belize).Royal Ontario Museum Art and Archaeology Occasional Papers, 21, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto.
Pendergast, D. M. (1974). Excavations at Actun Polbilche, Belize.Royal Ontario Museum Archaeology Monographs, 1, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto.
Pendergast, D. M. (1979).Excavations at Altun Ha, Belize, 1964–1970, Vol. 1, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto.
Pendergast, D. M. (1981). Lamanai, Belize: Summary of excavation results, 1974–1980.Journal of Field Archaeology 8 29–53.
Pendergast, D. M. (1982a). Ancient Maya mercury.Science 217 533–535.
Pendergast, D. M. (1982b).Excavations at Altun Ha, Belize, 1964–1970, Vol. 2, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto.
Pendergast, D. M. (1984). Test excavations at Yakalche, Belize, 1967–1970. Ms. on file, Department of New World Archaeology, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto.
Pendergast, D. M. (1985). Lamanai, Belize: An updated view. In Chase, A. F., and Rice, P. M. (eds.),The Lowland Maya Postclassic, University of Texas Press, Austin, pp. 91–103.
Pendergast, D. M. (1986a). Historic Lamanay: Royal Ontario Museum 1985 excavations at Lamanai, Belize.Mexicon 7 9–13.
Pendergast, D. M. (1986b). Stability through change: Lamanai, Belize, from the ninth to the seventeenth century. In Sabloff, J. A., and Andrews, E. W., V, (eds.),Late Lowland Maya Civilization: Classic to Postclassic, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 223–249.
Pendergast, D. M. (1986c). Under Spanish rule: The final chapter in Lamanai's Maya history.Belcast Journal of Belizean Affairs 3(1&2): 1–7.
Pendergast, D. M. (1990).Excavations at Altun Ha, Belize, 1964–1970, Vol. 3, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto.
Pendergast, D. M. (1991a). The southern Maya lowlands contact experience: The view from Lamanai, Belize. In Thomas, D. H. (ed.),Columbian Consequences, Vol. 3. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C., pp. 336–354.
Pendergast, D. M. (1991b). Up from the dust: The central lowlands postclassic as seen from Lamanai and Marco Gonzalez, Belize. In Clancy, F. S., and Harrison, P. D. (eds.),Vision and Revision in Maya Studies, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 169–177.
Pendergast, D. M., and Graham, E. (1981). Fighting a looting battle: Xunantunich, Belize.Archaeology 34 12–19.
Pendergast, D. M., and Graham, E. (1991). The town beneath the town: Excavations at San Pedro, Ambergris Caye, Belize.Royal Ontario Museum Archaeological Newsletter, Ser. 2, 45.
Pendergast, D. M., Jones, G. D., and Graham, E. (1993). Locating Spanish colonial towns in the Maya lowlands: Belize as a case study.Latin American Antiquity 4(1) (in press).
Potter, D. R. (1991). A descriptive taxonomy of middle preclassic chert tools at Colha, Belize. In Hester, T. R., and Shafer, H. J. (eds.),Maya Stone Tools: Selected Papers from the Second Maya Lithic Conference, Prehistory Press, Madison, Wis., pp. 21–29.
Price, H. W. (1899). Excavations on Sittee River, British Honduras.Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of London (n.s.) 17 339–344.
Pring, D. C. (1976). Outline of the northern Belize ceramic sequence.Ceramica de Cultura Maya 9 11–51.
Pring, D. C. (1977).The Preclassic Ceramics of Northern Belize, Ph.D. dissertation, University of London, London.
Puleston, D. E. (1977). The art and archaeology of hydraulic agriculture in the Maya lowlands. In Hammond, N. (ed.),Social Process in Maya Prehistory: Studies in Honor of Sir Eric Thompson, Academic Press, London, pp. 449–467.
Pyburn, A. (1987). Settlement patterns at Nohmul: A prehistoric Maya city in northern Belize, Central America.Mexicon 9 110–114.
Rice, D. S. (1974). The archaeology of British Honduras: A review and synthesis.Katunob Occasional Publications in Anthropology, Archaeology Series, 6, Museum of Anthropology, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley.
Rice, R. G. (1909). Notes on a flint in human shape found in the Thames.Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of London (n.s.) 22 359–360.
Richards, H. G., and Bockelman, H. J. (1937). Shells from Maya excavations in British Honduras.American Antiquity 3 166–169.
Ricketson, O. G. (1929). Excavations at Baking Pot, British Honduras.Carnegie Institution of Washington Publications, 403, Contributions to American Archaeology No. 1, Carnegie Institution, Washington, D.C.
Robertson, R. A. (1983). Functional analysis and social process in ceramics: The pottery from Cerros, Belize. In Leventhal, R. M., and Kolata, A. L. (eds.),Civilization in the Ancient Americas: Essays in Honor of Gordon R. Willey, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 105–142.
Robertson, R. A. (1986). The ceramics. In Robertson, R. A., and Freidel, D. A. (eds.),Archaeology at Cerros, Belize, Central America, Volume I: An Interim Report, Southern Methodist University Press, Dallas, Tex., pp. 89–103.
Robertson-Freidel, R. A. (1980).The Ceramics from Cerros: A Late Preclassic Site in Northern Belize, University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Robin, C. (1989).Preclassic Maya Burials at Cuello, Belize, BAR, Oxford.
Roemer, E. (1991). A late classic workshop at Colha, Belize. In Hester, T. R., and Shafer, H. J. (eds.),Maya Stone Tools: Selected Papers from the Second Maya Lithic Conference, Prehistory Press, Madison, Wis., pp. 55–66.
Satterthwaite, L., Jr. (1950). Plastic art on a Maya palace.Archaeology 3 215–222.
Satterthwaite, L., Jr. (1951). Reconnaissance in British Honduras.University Museum Bulletin 16(1): 21–37.
Satterthwaite, L., Jr. (1954). Sculptured Monuments from Caracol, British Honduras.University Museum Bulletin 18(1 & 2): 3–45.
Saul, F. P. and Saul, J. M. (1991). The preclassic population of Cuello. In Hammond, N. (ed.),Cuello: An Early Maya Community in Belize, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 134–158.
Scarborough, V. L. (1980).The Settlement System at a Late Preclassic Community: Cerros, Northern Belize, University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Scarborough, V. L. (1986a). The dispersed settlement. In Robertson, R. A., and Freidel, D. A. (eds.),Archaeology at Cerros, Belize, Central America, Volume I: An Interim Report, Southern Methodist University Press, Dallas, Tex., pp. 23–43.
Scarborough, V. L. (1986b). Drainage canal and raised field excavations. In Robertson, R. A., and Freidel, D. A. (eds.),Archaeology at Cerros, Belize, Central America, Volume 1: An Interim Report, Southern Methodist University Press, Dallas, Tex., pp. 75–87.
Scarborough, V. L., and Robertson, R. A. (1986). Civic and residential settlement at a late preclassic Maya center.Journal of Field Archaeology 13 155–175.
Schmidt, P. J. (1978). Postclassic finds in the Cayo District, Belize.Estudios de Cultura Maya 10 103–114.
Shafer, H. J. (1983). The lithic artifacts of the Pulltrouser area: Settlements and fields. In Turner, B. L., II, and Harrison, P. D. (eds.),Pulltrouser Swamp: Ancient Maya Habitat, Agriculture and Settlement in Northern Belize, University of Texas Press, Austin, pp. 212–245.
Shafer, H. J. (1991). Late preclassic formal stone tool production at Colha, Belize. In Hester, T. R., and Shafer, H. J. (eds.),Maya Stone Tools: Selected Papers from the Second Maya Lithic Conference, Prehistory Press, Madison, Wis., pp. 31–44.
Sidrys, R. V. (1983). Archaeological excavations in northern Belize, Central America.Institute of Archaeology Monographs, 17, University of California, Los Angeles.
Siemens, A. H. (1982). Prehispanic cultural use of the wetlands of northern Belize. In Flannery, K. V. (ed.),Maya Subsistence: Essays in Memory of Dennis E. Puleston, Academic Press, New York, pp. 205–225.
Stephens, J. L. (1841).Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan, Harper and Brothers, New York.
St. George Gray, H. (1916). On a chipped flint implement found in British Honduras.Man 16(91).
Stross, F. H., Bowman, H. R., Michel, H. V., Asaro, F., and Hammond, N. (1978). Mayan obsidian source correlation for southern Belize.Archaeometry 20 89–93.
Thompson, J. E. S. (1931). Archaeological investigations in the southern Cayo District, British Honduras.Field Museum of Natural History Publications, 301 [Anthropological Series Vol. 17 (3)], Field Museum, Chicago.
Thompson, J. E. S. (1939). Excavations at San Jose, British Honduras.Carnegie Institution of Washington Publications, 506, Carnegie Institution, Washington, D. C.
Thompson, J. E. S. (1940). Late ceramic horizons at Benque Viejo, British Honduras.Carnegie Institution of Washington Publications, 528 (Contributions to American Anthropology and History No. 35), Carnegie Institution, Washington, D.C.
Thompson, J. E. S. (1959). The role of caves in Maya culture.Amerikanistische Miszellen 25 122–129.
Turner, B. L., II, and Harrison, P. D. (eds.) (1983).Pulltrouser Swamp: Ancient Maya Habitat, Agriculture and Settlement in Northern Belize, University of Texas Press, Austin.
Vail, G. (1988).The Archaeology of Coastal Belize, BAR, Oxford.
Valdez, F., Jr. (1987).The Prehistoric Ceramics of Colha, Northern Belize, University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Mich.
White, C. (1988). The ancient Maya from Lamanai, Belize: Diet and health over 2,000 years.Canadian Review of Physical Anthropology 6(2): 1–21.
Wilk, R., and Hammond, N. (1976). Explorations at Nimili Punit, Toledo District, 1976. In Hammond, N. (ed.),Archaeology in Northern Belize: Cambridge University Corozal Project 1976 Interim Report, Centre of Latin American Studies, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, pp. 60–63.
Willey, G. R. (1973). Certain aspects of the late classic to postclassic periods in the Belize Valley. In Culbert, T. P. (ed.),The Classic Maya Collapse, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 93–106.
Willey, G. R., and Bullard, W. R., Jr. (1956). The Melhado Site, a house mound group in British Honduras.American Antiquity 22 29–44.
Willey, G. R., Bullard, W. R., Jr., Glass, J. B., and Gifford, J. C. (1965). Prehistoric Maya settlements in the Belize Valley.Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Papers, 54, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.
Zeitlin, R. N. (1984). A summary report on three seasons of field investigations into the archaic period prehistory of lowland Belize.American Anthropologist 86 358–369.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Pendergast, D.M. The center and the edge: Archaeology in Belize, 1809–1992. J World Prehist 7, 1–33 (1993). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00978219
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00978219