Abstract
Twenty-nine children 9 to 12 years old who were identified as moderately to severely depressed using the Children's Depression Inventory were randomly assigned to either a self-control, behavioral problem-solving, or waiting list condition. The self-control treatment focused on teaching children self-management skills. The behavioral problem-solving therapy consisted of education, self-monitoring of pleasant events, and group problem solving directed toward improving social behavior. Subjects were assessed pre-and posttreatment and at 8-week follow-up with multiple assessment procedures and from multiple perspectives. At posttreatment, subjects in both active treatments reported significant improvement on self-report and interview measures of depression while subjects in the waiting list condition reported minimal change. Results were maintained at follow-up. The general success of the experimental treatments was discussed and recommendations for further treatment components were provided.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Achenbach, T. M. (1978). The Child Behavior Profile: I. Boys ages 6–11.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46, 478–488.
Achenbach, T. M., & Edelbrock, C. S. (1979). The Child Behavior Profile: II. Boys ages 12–16 and girls aged 6–11 and 12–16.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 47, 223–233.
Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., & Emery, G. (1979).Cognitive therapy of depression. New York: Guilford Press.
Bryant, J. L., & Paulson, A. S. (1976). An extension of Tukey's method of multiple comparisons to experimental designs with random concomitant variables.Biometrica, 63, 631–638.
Butler, L., Miezitis, S., Friedman, R., & Cole, E. (1980). The effect of two school-based intervention programs on depressive symptoms in preadolescents.American Educational Research Journal, 17, 110–119.
Carlson, G. A. (1983). Depression and suicidal behavior in children and adolescents. In D. P. Cantwell & G. A. Carlson (Eds.),Affective disorders in childhood and adolescence: An update (pp. 335–352). Jamaica, New York: Spectrum.
Coopersmith, S. (1967).The antecedents of self-esteem. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.
Coopersmith, S. (1975).Self-Esteem Inventory-Form B. Lafayette, California: Self-Esteem Institute.
Cytryn, L., McKnew, D. H., & Bunney, W. E. (1980). Diagnosis of depression in children: A reassessment.American Journal of Psychiatry, 137, 22–25.
Dweck, C. S. (1975). The role of expectations and attributions in the alleviation of learned helplessness.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 10–16.
Frame, C., Matson, J., Sonis, W. A., Fialkov, M. J., & Kazdin, A. E. (1982). Behavioral treatment of depression in a prepubertal child.Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 3, 239–243.
Fuchs, C. Z., & Rehm, L. P. (1977). A self-control behavior therapy program for depression.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 45, 206–215.
Gottman, J., Gonso, J., & Schuler, P. (1976). Teaching social skills to isolated children.Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41, 179–197.
Grosscup, S. J., & Lewinsohn, P. M. (1980). Unpleasant and pleasant events, and mood.Journal of Clinical Psychology, 36, 252–259.
Hersen, M., Bellack, A. S., & Himmelhock, J. M. (1980). Treatment of unipolar depression with social skills training.Behavior Modification, 4, 547–557.
Kazdin, A. E. (1980).Research design in clinical psychology. New York: Harper & Row.
Kazdin, A. E. (1981). Assessment techniques for childhood depression: A critical appraisal.Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 20, 358–375.
Kazdin, A. E., French, N. H., Unis, A. S., & Esveldt-Dawson, D. K. (1983). Assessment of childhood depression: Correspondence of child and parent ratings.Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 22, 157–164.
Kendall, P. C., & Braswell, L. (1982). Cognitive-behavioral self-control therapy for children: A component analysis.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 50, 672–689.
Kovacs, M. (1981). Rating scales to assess depression in school-aged children.Acta Paedopsychiatrica, 46, 305–315.
Kovacs, M. (1983).The Children's Depression Inventory: A self-rated depression scale for school-aged youngsters. Unpublished manuscript, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine.
Kovacs, M. (1985). The natural history and course of depressive disorders in childhood.Psychiatric Annals, 15, 387–389.
Kovacs, M., & Beck, A. T.. (1977). An empirical-clinical approach toward a definition of childhood depression. In J. G. Schulterbrandt & A. Raskin (Eds.),Depression in childhood: Diagnosis, treatment and conceptual models (pp. 1–25). New York: Raven Press.
Kovacs, M., Feinberg, T. L., Crouse-Novak, M. A., Paulauskas, S. L., & Finkelstein, R. (1984). Depressive disorders in childhood: I. A longitudinal prospective study of characteristics and recovery.Archives of General Psychiatry, 41, 229–237.
Lewinsohn, P. H. (1974). A behavioral approach to depression. In R. J. Friedman and M. M. Katz (Eds.),The psychology of depression: Contemporary theory and research (pp. 157–184). Washington, D.C.: Winston-Wiley.
Lewinsohn, P. M., Sullivan, J. M., & Grosscup, S. J. (1980). Changing reinforcing events: An approach to the treatment of depression.Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 17, 322–334.
Nelson, R. O., Lipinski, D. P., & Boykin, R. A. (1978). The effects of self-recorder's training and the obtrusiveness of the self-recording device on the accuracy and reactivity of self-monitoring.Behavior Therapy, 9, 200–208.
O'Leary, S. G., & Dubey, D. R. (1979). Applications of self-control procedures by children: A review.Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 12, 449–465.
Petti, T. A., & Law, W. (1982). Imipramine treatment of depressed children. A double-blind pilot study.Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 2, 107–110.
Poznanski, E. O., Grossman, J. A., Buchsbaum, Y., Banegas, M., Freeman, L., &Gibbons, R. (1984). Preliminary studies of the reliability and validity of the Children's Depression Rating Scale.Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 23, 191–197.
Puig-Antich, J., & Chambers, W. (1978).The Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School Age Children (Kiddie-SADS). New York: New York Psychiatric Institute.
Puig-Antich, J., Lukens, E., Davies, M., Goetz, D., Brennan-Quattrock, J., & Todak, G. (1985). Psychosocial functioning in prepubertal major depressive disorders I. Interpersonal relationships during the depressive episode.Archives of General Psychiatry, 42, 500–507.
Rehm, L. P. (1977). A self-control model of depression.Behavior Therapy, 8, 787–804.
Rehm, L. P., Fuchs, C. Z., Roth, D. M., Kornblith, S. J., & Romano, J. M. (1979). A comparison of self-control and assertion skills treatments of depression.Behavior Therapy, 10, 429–442.
Rehm, L. P., Kaslow, N. J., Rabin, A. S., & Willard, R. (1984).Outcome of self-control behavior therapy programs for depression with cognitive, behavioral and combined targets. Manuscript in preparation.
Rehm, L. P., Kornblith, S. J., O'Hara, M. W., Lamparski, D. M., Romano, J. M., & Volkin, J. I. (1981). An evaluation of major components in a self-control therapy program for depression.Behavior Modification, 5, 459–489.
Reynolds, C. R., & Richmond, B. O. (1978). What I Think and Feel: A revised measure of children's manifest anxiety.Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 6, 271–280.
Reynolds, W. M. (in press).Child Depression Scale. Odessa, Florida: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Reynolds, W. M., Anderson, G., & Bartell, N. (1985). Measuring depression in children: A multimethod assessment investigation.Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 13, 513–526.
Reynolds, W. M., & Coats, K. I. (1986). A comparison of cognitive-behavioral and relaxation training for the treatment of depression in adolescents.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 54, 653–660.
Reynolds, W. M., & Stark, K. D. (1983). Cognitive behavior modification: The clinical application of cognitive strategies. In M. Pressley & J. R. Levin (Eds.),Cognitive strategy research: Psychological foundations (pp. 221–266). New York: Springer-Verlag.
Reynolds, W. M., & Stark, K. D. (in press). School-based intervention strategies for the treatment of depression in children and adolescents.Special Services in the Schools.
Sacks, J. L. (1977). The need for subtlety.Psychotherapy, 14, 434–437.
Stark, K. D., & Reynolds, W. M. (1984).A multi-component cognitive behavioral intervention for developing self-control in impulsive children. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago.
Switzky, H. N., & Haywood, H. C. (1974). Motivational orientation and the relative efficacy of self-monitored and externally imposed reinforcement systems in children.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 30, 360–366.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Additional information
Second authorship on this article is shared by Drs. Reynolds and Kaslow. The authors would like to thank Mr. Ed Guzwieski, Principal, and the teachers of Oregon Middle School for their cooperation with this study. The authors also would like to thank Mary Wysopal for conducting the posttreatment and follow-up interviews, and Carol Fairbanks for rating the audiotapes.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Stark, K.D., Reynolds, W.M. & Kaslow, N.J. A comparison of the relative efficacy of self-control therapy and a behavioral problem-solving therapy for depression in children. J Abnorm Child Psychol 15, 91–113 (1987). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00916468
Revised:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00916468