Summary
Road transportation is increasingly becoming one of the key factors for promoting economic growth in most developing countries. However, transport and road research in the tropics has received relatively little attention. Experiences in road construction in the tropics within the past 50 years or so have established that local materials specifications and pavement construction technologies have to be developed in relation to the climatic conditions. This would involve knowledge of the processes of formation as well as genetic characteristics of the local gravels. Genetic characteristics exert considerable influence on the geotechnical properties and engineering behaviour of local gravels under pavement. The construction technology of the road pavement should take cognizance of the compositional variabilities of the gravel deposits. Construction studies of pavement sections (as well as assessment of the performance of existing roads) built with different gravels formed over different geological formations in specific climatic, and drainage conditions would provide useful data for evolving local gravel specifications for constructing stable and durable pavements. Stage construction of pavements involving the exposure of the various layers to traffic loading and seasonal climatic influences appears to hold promise for formulating strategies for constructing stable, and long-term durable tropical roads. The problem of achieving reproducible laboratory test data under field conditions is perhaps the most challenging aspect of utilizing local gravels for pavement construction in tropical and sub-tropical conditions. It is noted that the stability of pavements in tropical environments depends not so much on the geotechnical properties of the available gravels as on the appreciation by the designers and construction engineers of the relationship between the genetic and laboratory determined characteristics of the gravels on the one hand and the pavement construction technology and local climatic and drainage conditions on the other. This paper is a contribution to development of highway geotechnics for tropical and sub-tropical conditions.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ackroyd, L.W. (1963) The correlation between engineering and pedological classification systems in Western Nigeria and its implications,Proceedings of the 3rd Regional Conference for African Soil Mechanics Found. Eng., 3rd edn, Salisbury, Balkema, Rotterdam, Vol. 1, pp. 115–8.
Ahn, P.M. (1970)West African Soils, 3rd edn, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 332 pp.
Altschaefel, A.G. and Lowell, C.W. (1969) Compaction variables and compaction specification. Purdue University of Engineering, Reprint CE 252; pp. 116–33.
American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO) (1966) Standard specifications for highway materials and methods of sampling and Testing, Part I, Specification, General Offices, Washington DC, 460 pp.
Arulanandan, K. (1969) Classification, engineering properties and behaviour of laterites, Special Session Lateritic Soils, inProf. 7th Intern. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., ISSMFE, Mexico, Vol. 2, pp. 181–90.
Bhatia, H.S. and Hammond, A.A. (1970) Durability and strength properties of laterite aggregates of Ghana, Build. and Road Res. Institute, Kumasi, Ghana Project Report SM9: 15 pp.
Bhatia, H.S. (1968) Personal communication, Building and Road Research Institute, Kumasi.
Blight, G.E. (1976) Migration of subgrade salts damages thin pavements,Journal of Transportation Engineering Division, American Society of Civil Engineers,102, 779–91.
British Standards Institution (1960) Methods for sampling and testing of mineral aggregates, sands and fillers, British Standards 812, London, 84 pp.
British Standards Institution (B5) (1975) Methods of test for soils for civil engineering purposes. Brit. Std 1377, London, 143 pp.
Bunting, B.T. (1965)The Geography of Soils, 1st edn, Aldine Publishing Co., Chicago.
Casagrande, A. (1948) Classification and identification of soils,Transactions, Amer. Soc. Civ. Engrs.,113, 901–91.
Castel, A.K. (1970a) Cement stabilisation of laterite soils (literature review), Building Road Research Institute, Kumasi Research Report SM 13.
Castel, A.K. (1970b) Stabilisation of laterite gravel using sand,Ghana Engineer, Accra.3, 21–9.
Clare, K.E. (1969) Road marking gravels and soils in Central Africa, British Road Research Laboratory, Overseas Bulletin, No. 12.
Clare, K.E. and Beaver, P.J. (1962) Soils and other road building materials in Nigeria, Road Research Laboratory (UK), Technical Paper 57.
Clauss, K.A. (1963) The influence of the pH value of the pore moisture on the dolerites in road foundations, National Institute for Road Research, Pretoria, Report RS/6/63.
Clauss, K.A. (1967) The pH of fresh and weathered dolerite as an indicator of decomposition and of stabilization requirements,Proc. 4th Reg. Conf. Africa, Soil Mech. Found. Eng., Cape Town, Vol. 1, pp. 101–108 (published by Balkema, Rotterdam).
Clegg, B. (1976) An impact testing device for in situ base coarse evaluation, inProc. 8th, Australian Road Res. Board (ARRB) Conf., Perth, pp. 1–6.
De Graft-Johnson, J.W.S., Bhatia, H.S. and Gidigasu, M.D. (1969) The engineering characteristics of lateritic gravels in Ghana, in Proceedings of the Special Session on Lateritic Soils; 7th International Conference on Soil Mechanics Foundation Engineering, Mexico, Vol. 4; pp. 117–28.
De Graft-Johnson, J.W.S., Bhatia, H.S. and Hammond, A.A. (1972a) Lateritic gravel evaluation for road construction.Journal of Soil Mechanics Foun. Eng. Div., Am. Soc. Civ. Engrs,98 (SM 11), 1245–65.
De Graft-Johnson, J.W.S., Bhatia, H.S. and Yeboa, S.L. (1972b) Influence of geology and physical properties on strength characteristics of laterite gravels for road pavements. Highway Research Board, Record 405, pp. 87–104.
Dunn, C.S. (1966) Specification for crushed stone road base and sub-base aggregates.Journal of British Coranite Whinstone Federation,6, 7–22.
Ellis, I.C. and Russell, R.B.C. (1973) The use of salt bearing soils (Sabka) for low cost roads, Transp. Road Res. Lab. (UK), Paper PA 78/74, pp. 1–26.
Fookes, P.G. (1976) Road geotechnics in hot deserts,Journal of Institution of Highway Engineers, 11–23.
Fookes, P.G. and French, W.J. (1977) Soluble salt damage to surfaced roads in the Middle East,The Highway Engineer,XXIV, 10–20.
Frederickson, A.F. (1952) The genetic significance of mineralogy, inProblems of Clay and Laterite Genesis. American Institute of Mining and Metallurgy Engineering, New York, pp. 1–11.
Frost, R.J. (1967) Review of specifications for gravel paving materials for low cost roads, inProc. South East Asian Reg. Conf. Soil Eng., ISSMFE, Bangkok, pp. 451–60.
Fuller, W.B. and Thompson, S.E. (1907) The laws of proportioning concrete,Transactions, Am. Soc. Civ. Engrs.,59, 67–143.
Ghana Highway Authority (Public works Department) (1970) Detailed engineering and design materials report, Contract 2, Report prepared by Ingeroute Engineers (France), Ghana Highway Authority, Accra.
Ghana Highway Authority (Public Works Department) (1972) Ghana Highway Study, Road Rehabilitation Programme, Soil Assessment, Ghana Highway Authority, Accra, Vol. 2.
Gidigasu, M.D. (1972) Mode of formation and geotechnical characteristics of laterite materials of Ghana in relation to soil forming factors,Engineering Geology,6, 79–150.
Gidigasu, M.D. (1975a) Behaviour of lateritic soils in roads,Ghana Engineer, 52–78.
Gidigasu, M.D. (1975b) The behaviour of laterite materials in the roadway structure, Building and Road Research Institute, Kumasi, Current Report 8, 37 pp.
Gidigasu, M.D. (1976a)Laterite Soil Engineering, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Gidigasu, M.D. (1976b) An approach to the development of highway geotechnical specifications for Ghana,Ghana Engineer,7, 10–22.
Gidigasu, M.D. (1980a) Geotechnical evaluation of residual gravels in pavement construction,Engineering Geology,15, 176–94.
Gidigasu, M.D. (1980b) Some contributions to tropical soils engineering in Ghana, inProc. Res. Conf. African Soil Mech. Found. Eng., 7th, Accra, Vol. 1, pp. 509–626.
Gidigasu, M.D. (1982) Importance of material selection, construction control and field performance studies in developing acceptance specifications for lateritic paving gravels.Solos e Rochas, (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil)3, 1–12.
Gidigasu, M.D. (1982/83) Development of acceptance specifications for tropical gravel paving materials,Engineering Geology,19, 212–40.
Gidigasu, M.D. (1990) The use of non-traditional tropical and residual materials for pavement construction — a review, inProceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Tropical Geomechanics, Singapore,1, 397–403.
Gidigasu, M.D. and Bhatia, H.S. (1971) The importance of soil profiles in the engineering studies of laterite soils in Ghana, inProc. Reg. Conf. Africa Soil Mech. Found. Eng., 5th, Luanda, Angola, Vol. 1, pp. 2.55–2.60.
Gidigasu, M.D. and Appeagyei, E. (1984) Shallow foundation conditions in tropical residual soils in relation to the environment, inProc. Reg. Conf. Africa Soil Mech. Found. Eng. 8th, Harare, Vol. 1, pp. 195–201.
Gidigasu, M.D. and Mate-Korley, E. (1982) Stabilisation characteristics of selected Ghanian soils. Build. and Road Inst., Kumasi, Ghana (World Bank restricted report).
Gidigasu, M.D. and Mate-Korley, E. (1984) Tropical gravel paving materials specifications in relation to the environment, inProc. Reg. Conf. Africa Soil Mech. Found. Eng., 8th, Harare, Vol. 1, pp. 267–73.
Grant, K. and Finlayson, A.D. (1978) The assessment and evaluation of geotechnical resources in urban or regional environments, Engineering Geology Amsterdam,12, 219–93.
Hammond, A.A. (1970) A study of some laterite gravels from Kumasi district, Building and Road Research Institute, Kumasi Project Report SM.5.
Harral, C. and Faiz, A. (1968) Road deterioration in developing countries: Causes and remedies, A World Bank Policy Study, (World Bank, Washington, DC), 61 pp.
Johnson, A.W. and Salberg, J.R. (1960) Factors that influence field compaction of soils, Highway Res. Board, Bulletin 272; 206 pp.
Kubiena, W.L. (1948)Entwicklungslehre des Bodens, Springer-Verlag, Vienna.
Lay, M.G. (1981)Source Book for Australian Roads, Aust. Road Res. Board, Vermont South, 501 pp.
Liang, T. (1964). Tropical soils: Characteristics and airphoto interpretation, Cornell University, Report AFCRL-64-937, 163 pp.
Lohnes, R.A., Demirel, T. and Tuncer, E.R. (1976) Strength and structure of laterites and lateritic soils,Eng. Res. Inst., Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, 85 pp.
Loubser, M.M. (1967) Shale in road foundation, inProc. Reg. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., 4th, Cape Town, Vol. 1, pp. 129–34.
Loughnan, F.C. (1969)Chemical Weathering of the Silicate Minerals, Elsevier, New York.
Maignien, R. (1966). Review of research on laterites, National Resources Research, IV, UNESCO, Paris, 148 pp.
McLaughlin, J.F., Woods, R.B., Mielenz, R.C. and Rockwood, N.C. (1960) Distribution, production and engineering characteristics of aggregates, inHighway Engineering Handbook, Wood, K. B. (ed.) McGraw-Hill, pp. 16.1–16.53.
Millard, R.S. (1962) Road building in the tropics,Journal of Applied Chemistry,12, 342–57.
Mitchell, J.K. (1976)Fundamentals of Soil Behaviour, Wiley, New York.
O'Reilly, M.P. and Millard, R.S. (1969) Roadmaking materials and pavement design in tropical and sub-tropical countries, Road Res. Lab., Crowthorne, report 279, 31 pp.
Peck, B.R., Hanson, W.E. and Thornburn, T.H. (1974)Foundation Engineering, Wiley, New York, 2nd edn.
Persons, B.S. (1970)Laterites: Genesis, Location, Use, Plenum Press, New York.
Remillon, A. (1955) Stabilisation of laterite soils, Highway Res. Board, Bulletin 108; 96–110.
Road Research Laboratory (RRL) (1952) Soil mechanics for road engineers, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London, 541 pp.
Robinson, F.G.W. (1949)Soils: Their Origin, Constitution and Classification, Thomas Murphy, London.
Scott, L.E. (1955) Secondary minerals in rocks as a cause of pavement and base failure,Proc. Highway Res. Board, Washington DC, Record34, 412–7.
Shellman, W. (1979) Considerations on the definition and classification of laterites, inProc. Intern. Seminar Laterisation processes, Trivandum, India, pp. 1–10.
Sherwood, P.T. (1967) Classification tests on African red clays and Keuper Marl, Q.J. Eng. Geol., London, 1(1): 47–55.
Skempton, A.W. (1953) Soil mechanics in relation to geology, inProceedings Yorkshire Geological Society,29 (1), 33–62.
Tanner, J.S. (1963) A review of the methods of pavement design used in overseas territories and the performance of roads constructed by the various design methods, inProc. Reg. Conf. Africa Soil Mech. Found. Eng., 3rd edn., Salisbury, Vol. 1, pp. 93–100.
Thompson, J.G. (1957). Granite soils in Southern Rhodesia,Rhodesian Agricultural Journal,54, 121–8.
United States Corps of Engineers (1953) Unified soil classification system, Tech. Memo No. 3, U.S. Waterways Exp. Station, Vicksburg, MS.
United States Agency for International Development (USAID) (1971) Laterite and lateritic soils and other problem soils of Africa, Rept. AID/CSD-2164: 290 pp.
Vine, H. (1948) Nigerian soils in relation to pavement material,Commonwealth Soil Science Technical Communications,46, 22–9.
Weinert, H.H. (1961) Weathered dolerites in road foundation, A problem unique to South Africa, Const., South Africa,6, 35–6.
Weinert, H.H. (1964) Basic igneous rocks in road foundations, National Institute for Road Research, Pretoria, Research Report No. 218, 47 pp. (unpublished).
Weinert, H.H. (1968) Engineering petrology for roads in South Africa,Engineering Geology, Amsterdam3, 363–95.
Weinert, H.H. (1974) A climatic index of weathering and its application in road construction,Geotechnique,24, 475–88.
Weinert, H.H. and Clauss, K.A. (1967) Soluble salts in road foundations, inProc. Reg. Conf. Africa Soil Mech. Found. Eng., 4th, Cape Town, Balkema, Rotterdam, Vol. 1, pp. 213–18.
Wooltorton, F.L.D. (1955) Engineering pedology and soil stabilisation, Highway Res. Board, Washington, DC, Bulletin 108, pp. 29–57.
Wylde, L.J. (1976a) Degradation of road aggregates,J. Austr. Road Res. Board,6, 22–9.
Wylde, L.J. (1976b) In service deterioration of road aggregates, Australian Road Res. Board, Internal Report A/R.172-2, 21 pp.
Wylde, L.J. (1976c) Degradation of road aggregates, in Proc. 13th, Austr. Road Res. Board, Regional Symposium, Bega, N.S.W., Aust. Rd. Res. Board, Victoria, Paper 5, pp. 1–15.
Wylde, L.J. (1978) Analysis of a questionnaire on the use of mechanically weak rocks as road pavement materials. Australian Road Research Board, Research Report Arr No. 89, 27 pp.
Zeymour, P. and Durrier, J. (1966) Granularite des assizes stabilise mecaniquement,Bull. de Liaison des Laboratoires Routiers. Laboratoire Centrale des Ponts et Chaussées, Paris 18, March–April, 1-1–1-18.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Gidigasu, M.D. Characterization and use of tropical gravels for pavement construction in West Africa. Geotech Geol Eng 9, 219–260 (1991). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00881742
Received:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00881742