Abstract
This article describes the current approach to the systematic management of both small cell and non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). The treatment of stages I, II, and IIIa NSCLC is surgical resection. Although adjuvant chemotherapy in stage I disease offers no survival benefit, the role of adjuvant chemotherapy in stage II and IIIa NSCLC remains controversial. Results of pilot studies using neoadjuvant chemotherapy in stage IIIa NSCLC are encouraging and data from ongoing randomized trials are awaited with interest. For locally advanced NSCLC, chest irradiation remains the standard of care. However, the addition of systemic chemotherapy holds promise. The impact of cisplatin-based regimens on overall survival in stage IV NSCLC remains disappointing. The introduction of newer agents, such as 7-ethyl-10-[4-(1-piperidino)-1-piperidino] carbonyloxycamptothecin (CPT-11), a topoisomerase-I inhibitor, has shown early favorable results.
Chemotherapy is the most important therapeutic modality in the management of small cell lung cancer because of this cancer's propensity for early dissemination. In limited stage small cell lung cancer, chest radiotherapy, particularly if used early and concurrently with chemotherapy, may improve survival, but at the expense of increased toxicity. The role of prophylactic brain irradiation remains controversial in limited-stage disease. Chemotherapy is also the most important treatment modality in extensive-stage disease, but its role is only palliative. Radiotherapy is reserved primarily for disease-related complications in patients in whom chemotherapy has failed.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Armstrong J, Minsky B (1989) Radiation therapy for medically inoperable stage I and II nonsmall cell lung cancer. Cancer Treat Rev 16:247–255
Bangma PJ (1972) Postoperative radiotherapy. In Deeley TJ (ed) Carcinoma of the bronchus: modern radiotherapy. Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York, pp 163–170
Boring CC, Squires TS, Tong T (1992) Cancer statistics, 1992. CA-A 42:19–39
Brunner KW, Marthaler T, Muller W (1973) Effects of long-term adjuvant chemotherapy with cyclophosphamide NSC-26271 for radically resected bronchogenic carcinoma. Cancer Chemother Rep 4:125–132
Bunn PA, Lichter AS, Makuch RW, et al. (1987) Chemotherapy alone or chemotherapy with radiation therapy in limited stage small cell lung cancer. Ann Int Med 106:655–662
Cellerino R, Tummarello D, Guidi F, et al. (1991) A randomized trial of alternating chemotherapy versus best supportive care in advanced non-small cell lung cancer. J Clin Oncol 9:1453–1461
Cullen J, McKenna J, Massey M (1986) International control of smoking and the U.S. experience. Chest 89 (suppl 4):2206S-2218S
Dillman RO, Seagren SL, Propert KJ, et al. (1990) A randomized trial of induction chemotherapy plus high-dose radiation versus radiation alone in stage III non-small-cell lung cancer. N Engl J Med 323:940–945
Einhorn L, Loehrer P, Williams S, et al. (1986) Random prospective study of vindesine versus vindesine plus high-dose cisplatin versus vindesine plus cisplatin plus mitomycin C. J Clin Oncol 4:1037–1043
Einhorn LFI, Crawford J, Birch R, et al. (1988) Cisplatin plus etoposide consolidation following cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, and vincristine in limited small-cell lung cancer. J Clin Oncol 6:451–456
Elliott J, Ahmedzal S, Hole D, et al. (1984) Vindesine and cisplatin combination chemotherapy compared with vindesine as a single agent in the management of non-small cell lung cancer: a randomized study. Eur J Cancer Clin Oncol 20:1025–1032
Emami B, Perez CA (1992) Lung. In Perez CA, Brady, LW (eds) Principles and practice of radiation oncology, 2nd ed. Philadelphia, JB Lippincott, pp 806–836
Evans WK, Feld R, Murray N, et al. (1987) Superiority of alternating non-cross-resistant chemotherapy in extensive small cell lung cancer. Ann Intern Med 107:451–458
Fleck JF, Einhorn LH, Lauer RC, et al. (1990) Is prophylactic cranial irradiation indicated in small-cell lung cancer? J Clin Oncol 8:209–214
Fossella FV, Ryan B, Dhingra H, et al. (1991) Interim report of a prospective randomized trial of neoadjuvant chemotherapy plus surgery versus surgery alone for IIIa non-small cell lung cancer. Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 10 (abstract):240
Fox W, Scadding JG (1973) Medical Research Council comparative trial of surgery and radiotherapy for primary treatment of small-celled or oat-celled carcinoma of bronchus. Lancet 2:63–65
Frytak S, Shaw E, Eagan R (1991) Accelerated hyperfractionated split-course thoracic radiotherapy and infusion cisplatin for small cell lung cancer. Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 10 (abstract): 260
Fukuoka M, Furuse K, Saijo N, et al. (1991) Randomized trial of cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, and vincristine versus cisplatin and etoposide versus alternation of these regimens in small-cell lung cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 83:855–861
Fukuoka M, Nitani H, Suzuki A, et al. (1992) A phase II study of CPT-11, a new derivative of camptothecin, for previously untreated non-small cell lung cancer. J Clin Oncol 10:16–20
Ganz P, Figlin R, Haskell C, et al. (1989) Supportive care versus supportive care and combination chemotherapy in metastatic non-small cell lung cancer. Cancer 63:1271–1278
Gomez-Codina J, Rosell R, Camps C, et al. (1991) Effective neoadjuvant chemotherapy for stage IIia non-small cell lung cancer—a randomized trial of preoperative MIC chemotherapy in comparison with immediate surgery. Sixth European Conference on Clinical Oncology and Cancer Nursing Firenze (abstract):S167
Greco FA, Perez C, Einhorn LH, et al. (1986) Combination chemotherapy with or without concurrent thoracic radiotherapy in limited stage small cell lung cancer: a phase III trial of the Southeastern Oncology Group. Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 5 (abstract):178
Haffty B, Goldberg N, Gerstley J, et al. (1988) Results of radical radiation therapy in clinical stage I, technically operable non-small cell lung cancer, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 15:69–73
Haffty BG (1990) Is radiation therapy a viable alternative to surgery in early stage lung cancer? Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 19:223–224
Herskovic AM, Orton CG (1986) Editorial: elective brain irradiation for small cell anaplastic lung cancer. Int J Radial Oncol Biol Phys 12:427–429
Holmes EC (1988) Current status of adjuvant chemotherapy in the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer. In DeVita VT, Heilman, Rosenberg (eds) Important advances in oncology. Philadelphia, JB Lippincott, pp 259–272
Holmes EC, Gail M, Lung Cancer Study Group (1986) Surgical adjuvant therapy for stage II and stage III adenocarcinoma and large-cell undifferentiated carcinoma. J Clin Oncol 4:710–715
Holoye PY, McMurtrey MJ, Mountain CF, et al. (1990) The role of adjuvant surgery in the combined modality therapy of small cell bronchogenic carcinoma after a chemotherapy-induced remission. J Clin Oncol 8:416–422
Ihde DC, Minna JD (1991) Non-small cell lung cancer. Part II: Treatment. Curr Probl Cancer 15:109–154
Israel L, Bonmadonna G, Sylvester R, et al. (1979) Lung cancer. In Rozencweig M, Muggia F (ed) Progress in therapeutic research. Raven Press, New York, pp 443–452
Johnson BE, Becker B, II GWB, et al. (1985) Neurologic, neuropsychologic, and computed cranial tomography scan abnormalities in 2- to 10-year survivors of small-cell lung cancer. J Clin Oncol 3:1659–1667
Johnson BE, Salem C, Nesbitt J, et al. (1991) Limited stage small cell lung cancer treated with concurrent bid chest radiotherapy and etoposide/cisplatin followed by chemotherapy selected by in vitro drug sensitivity testing. Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 10 (abstract):240
Kaasa S, Thorud E, Host H, et al. (1988) A randomized study evaluating radiotherapy versus chemotherapy in patients with inoperable non-small cell lung cancer. Radiat Oncol 11:713
Kies MS, Mira JG, Crowley JJ, et al. (1987) Multimodal therapy for limited small-cell lung cancer: a randomized study of induction combination chemotherapy with or without thoracic radiation in complete responders; and with wide-field versus reduced-field radiation in partial responders: a Southwest Oncology Group Study. J Clin Oncol 5:592–600
Kristjansen PEG, Hansen HH. (1990) Management of small cell lung cancer: a summary of the third international association for the study of lung cancer workshop on small cell lung cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 82:263–266
Krook J, Fleming T, Eagan R, et al. (1984) Comparison of combination chemotherapy programs in advanced adenocarcinoma-large cell carcinoma or the lung: a North Central Cancer Treatment Group study. Cancer Treat Rep 68:493–498
LeChevalier T, Arriagada R, Quoix E, et al. (1991) Chemotherapy adds benefit to radiation for patients with locally advanced non-small cell lung carcinoma: results of a randomized study in 353 patients. Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 10 (abstract):245
LeChevalier T, Arriagada R, Quoix E, et al. (1991) Radiotherapy alone versus combined chemotherapy and radiotherapy in nonresectable non-small-cell lung cancer: first analysis of a randomized trial in 353 patients. J Natl Cancer Inst 83:417–423
LeChevalier T, Arriagada R, Tarayre M, et al. (1992) Significant effect of adjuvant chemotherapy on survival in locally advanced non-small-cell lung cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 84:58 (letter)
Lee JS, Murphy WK, Glisson BS, et al. (1989) Primary chemotherapy of brain metastasis in small-cell lung cancer. J Clin Oncol 7:916–922
Luedke D, Einhorn L, Omura G, et al. (1990) Randomized comparison comparison of two combination regimens versus minimal chemotherapy in non-small cell lung cancer: a Southeastern Cancer Study Group trial. J Clin Oncol 8:886–891
Lung Cancer Study Group (1986) Effects of postoperative mediastinal radiation on completely resected stage II and stage III epidermoid cancer of the lung. N Eng J Med 315:1377–1381
Lung Cancer Study Group (1988) The benefit of adjuvant treatment for resected locally advanced non-small cell lung cancer. J Clin Oncol 6:9–17
Martini N, Kris MG, Gralla R, et al. (1988) The effects of preoperative chemotherapy on the resectability of non-small cell lung carcinoma with mediastinal lumph node metastasis (N2M0). Ann Thorac Surg 45:370–379
Mattson K, Holsti LR, Holsti P, et al. (1988) Inoperable non-small cell lung cancer: radiation with or without chemotherapy. Eur J Cancer Clin Oncol 24:477–482
Mountain CF (1985) The biological operability of stage III non-small cell lung cancer. Ann Thorac Surg 40:60–64
Mountain CF (1986) A new international staging system for lung cancer. Chest 89:225S-233S
Mountain CF, Lukeman JM, Hammar SP, et al. (1987) Lung cancer classification: the relationship of disease extent and cell type to survival in a clinical trials population. J Surg Oncol 35:147–156
Murray N, Coy P, Pater J (1991) The importance of timing for thoracic irradiation in the combined modality treatment of limited stage small cell lung cancer. Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 10 (abstract):243
Murren JR, Buzaid AC, Hait WN (1991) Critical analysis of neoadjuvant therapy for stage IIIa non-small cell lung cancer. Am Rev Respir Dis 143:889–894
Neill H, Griffin J, Hunter R, et al. (1989) Combination versus sequential single-agent chemotherapy in the treatment of patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer. Med Pediatr Oncol 17:69–75
Osterlind K, Hansen HH, Hansen HS, et al. (1986) Chemotherapy versus chemotherapy plus irradiation in limited stage small cell lung cancer. Results of a controlled trial with 5 years follow-up. Br J Cancer 54:7–17
Patterson R, Russell MH (1962) Clinical trials in malignant disease. IV. Lung cancer. Value of postoperative radiotherapy. Clin Radiol 13:141–144
Perez CA, Einhorn L, Oldham RK, et al. (1984) Randomized trial of radiotherapy to the thorax in limited small-cell carcinoma of the lung treated with multiagent chemotherapy and elective brain irradiation: a preliminary report. J Clin Oncol 2:1200–1208
Perry MC, Eaton WL, Propert KJ, et al. (1987) Chemotherapy with or without radiation therapy in limited stage small-cell carcinoma of the lung. N Engl J Med 316:912–918
Quoix E, Dietemann A, Charbonneau J, et al. (1991) Is chemotherapy with cisplatin useful in non-small cell bronchial cancer at staging IV? Results of a randomized study. Bull Cancer (Paris) 78:341–346
Rapp E, Pater JL, Willan A, et al. (1988) Chemotherapy can prolong survival in patients with advanced non-small-cell lung cancer-report of a Canadian multicenter randomized trial. J Clin Oncol 6:633–641
Rosso R, Salvati F, Ardizzoni A, et al. (1990) Etoposide versus etoposide plus high-dose cisplatin in the management of advanced non-small cell lung cancer: results of a prospective randomized FONICAP trial. Cancer 65:130–134
Roth BJ, Johnson DH, Einhorn LH, et al. (1992) Randomized study of cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, and vincristine versus etoposide and cisplatin versus alternation of these two regimens in extensive small-cell lung cancer: a phase III trial of the Southeastern Cancer Study Group. J Clin Oncol 10:282–291
Ruckdeschel J. Personal communication.
Sandler HM, Curran WJ Jr, Turrisi AT III (1990) The influence of tumor size and pre-treatment staging on outcome following radiation therapy alone for stage I non-small cell lung cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 19:9–13
Schaake-Koning C, Bogaert W van den, Dalesio O, et al. (1992) Effects of concommittant cisplatin and radiotherapy on inoperable non-small-cell lung cancer. N Engl J Med 326:524–530
Shepard FA, Ginsberg RJ, Feld R, et al. (1991) Surgical treatment for limited small cell lung cancer. The University of Toronto Lung Oncology Group experience. J Thorac Cardiovas Surg 101:385–393
Shepherd FA, Evans WK, Feld R, et al. (1988) Adjuvant chemotherapy following surgical resection for small cell carcinoma of the lung. J Clin Oncol 6:832–838
Shields TM, Higgins GA, Humphrey EW, et al. (1982) Prolonged intermittent adjuvant chemotherapy with CCNU and hydroxyurea after resection of carcinoma of the lung. Cancer 50:1713–1721
Shields TM, Robinette CD, Keehn MS (1974) Bronchial carcinoma treated by adjuvant cancer chemotherapy. Arch Surg 109:329–333
Shields TW, Higgins GAJ, Matthews MJ, et al. (1982) Surgical resection in the management of small cell carcinoma of the lung. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 84:481–488
Slack HH (1970) Bronchogenic carcinoma: nitrogen mustard as a surgical adjunct and factors influencing survival. University Surgical Adjuvant Lung Cancer Project. Cancer 25:987–1002
Souhami RL, Geddes DM, Spiro SG, et al. (1984) Radiotherapy in small cell cancer of the lung treated with combination chemotherapy: a controlled trial. Br Med J 288:1643–1646
Talton BM, Constable WC, Kersh CR (1990) Curative radiotherapy in non-small cell carcinoma of the lung. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 19:15–21
Turrisi AT, Glover DJ, Mason BA, et al. (1989) Prophylactic cranial irradiation after chemotherapy as part of a combined modality platinum-etoposide and twice-daily chest radiotherapy for limited small cell lung cancer. Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 8 (abstract):245
Turrisi ATI, Glover DJ, Mason BA (1988) A preliminary report: concurrent twice-daily radiotherapy plus platinum-etoposide chemotherapy for limited small cell lung cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 15:183–187
Twelves CJ, Souhami RL, Harper PG, et al. (1990) The response of cerebral metastases in small cell lung cancer to systemic chemotherapy. Br J Cancer 61:147–150
VanHoutte P, Rocmans R, Smets P, et al. (1980) Post-operative radiation therapy in lung cancer: a controlled trial after resection of curative design. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 6:983–985
Woods R, Williams C, Levitt J, et al. (1990) A randomized trial of cisplatin and vindesine versus supportive car only in advanced non-small cell lung cancer. Br J Cancer 61:608–611
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Sandler, A.B., Buzaid, A.C. Lung cancer: A review of current therapeutic modalities. Lung 170, 249–265 (1992). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00566678
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00566678