Skip to main content
Log in

Adaptive response of mammalian skeletal muscle to exercise with high loads

  • An Occasional Review
  • Published:
European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Baldwin KM, Valdez V, Herrick RF, MacIntosh AM, Roy RR (1982) Biochemical properties of overloaded fast twitch skeletal muscle. J Appl Physiol 52: 467–472

    Google Scholar 

  • Bárány M, Close RI (1971) The transformation of myosin in crossinnervated rat muscles. J Physiol 213: 455–474

    Google Scholar 

  • Barnett JG, Holly RG, Ashmore CR (1980) Stretch-induced growth in chicken wing muscles: biochemical and morphological characterization. Am J Physiol 239: C39-C46

    Google Scholar 

  • Berger RA (1962) Optimum repetitions for the development of strength. Res Q Exerc Sport 33: 334–338

    Google Scholar 

  • Binkhorst RA, Van Hof MA (1973) Force velocity relationship and contraction time of the rat fast plantaris muscle due to compensatory hypertrophy. Pflügers Arch 342: 145–158

    Google Scholar 

  • Bonde-Petersen F (1960) Muscle training by static, concentric and eccentric contractions. Acta Physiol Scand 48: 406–416

    Google Scholar 

  • Bonde-Petersen F, Graudal H, Hausen JW, Hvid N (1961) The effect of varying the number of muscle contractions on dynamic muscle training. Eur J Appl Physiol 18: 468–473

    Google Scholar 

  • Brooke MJ, Kaiser KK (1969) Some comments on the histochemical characterisation of muscle adenosine triphosphate. J Histochem Cytochem 17: 431–432

    Google Scholar 

  • Caldarera CM, Casti A, Guanier C, Monizzi G (1975) Regulation of ribonucleic acid synthesis by polyamines. Biochem J 152: 91–98

    Google Scholar 

  • Caldarera CM, Orlandini G, Casti A, Monizzi G (1974) Polyamines and nucleic acid metabolism in myocardial hypertrophy of the overloaded heart. J Mol Cell Cardiol 6: 95–103

    Google Scholar 

  • Close RI (1972) Dynamic properties of mammalian skeletal muscles. Physiol Rev 51: 129–197

    Google Scholar 

  • Costill DL, Coyle EF, Fink WF, Lesmes GR, Witzmann FA (1979) Adaptations in skeletal muscle following strength training. J Appl Physiol 46: 96–99

    Google Scholar 

  • Cutilletta AF, Rudnik M, Zak R (1978) Muscle and nonmuscle cell R.N.A. polymerase activity during the development of myocardial hypertrophy. J Mol Cell Cardiol 10: 677–687

    Google Scholar 

  • Darcus HD, Salter N (1955) The effect of repeated muscular exertion on muscle strength. J Physiol 129: 325–336

    Google Scholar 

  • Davies CTM, McGrath K (1982) Effects of training and chronic tetanic (40 Hz) stimulation on voluntary and electrically evoked contractions of the triceps surae in a human subject. J Physiol 329: 48–49P

    Google Scholar 

  • Davies CTM, Young K (1983) Effects of training at 30 and 100% maximal isometric force (MVC) on the contractile properties of the triceps surae in man. J Physiol 336: 22–23P

    Google Scholar 

  • DeLorme TL (1945) Restoration of muscle power by heavy resistance exercises. J Bone Joint Surg 27: 645–667

    Google Scholar 

  • DeLuca CJ, LeFever RS, McCue MP, Xenakis AP (1982) Behaviour of human motor units in different muscles during linearly varying contractions. J Physiol 329: 113–128

    Google Scholar 

  • Dons B, Bollerup K, Bonde-Petersen F, Hancke S (1979) The effect of weight-lifting exercise related to muscle fibre composition and muscle cross-sectional area in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol 40: 95–106

    Google Scholar 

  • Dubowitz V, Hyde SA, Scott OM, Vrbova G (1982) Effect of long-term electrical stimulation on the fatigue of human muscle. J Physiol 328: 30P

  • Duchâteau J, Hainaut K (1981) Adaptation du muscle humain et ses unités motrices à l'exercise. J Biophys Med Nucl 5: 249–253

    Google Scholar 

  • Edgerton VR, Barnard RJ, Peter JB, Gillespie CA, Simpson DR (1972) Overloaded skeletal muscles of a non human primate (Galago senegalensis). Exp Neurol 37: 322–339

    Google Scholar 

  • Edjtehadi G, Lewis DM (1979) Histochemical reactions of fibres in a fast twitch muscle of the cat. J Physiol 287: 439–453

    Google Scholar 

  • Edström L, Ekblom B (1972) Differences in sizes of red and white muscle fibres in vastus lateralis of musculus quadriceps femoris of normal individuals and athletes. Relation to physical performance. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 30: 175–181

    Google Scholar 

  • Edwards RHT, Jones DA, Newham DJ (1982) Low frequency stimulation and changes in human muscle contractile properties. J Physiol 328: 29P

  • Eriksson E, HÄggmark T, Kiessling KH, Karlsson J (1981) Effect of electrical stimulation on human skeletal muscle. J Sports Med 2: 18–22

    Google Scholar 

  • Exner GO, Staudte HW, Pette D (1973) Isometric training of rats — Effects upon fast and slow muscle and modification by an anabolic hormone (nandrolone deconate) I Female rats. Pflügers Arch 345: 1–13

    Google Scholar 

  • Fischer E (1940) The relation between birefringence and contractile power of normal, hypertrophied and atrophied skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol 13: 156–164

    Google Scholar 

  • Fitts R, Campion D, Nagle F, Cassens R (1973) Contractile properties of skeletal muscle from trained miniature pig. Pflügers Arch 343: 133–141

    Google Scholar 

  • Freeman PL, Luff AR (1982) Contractile properties of hindlimb muscles in rat during surgical overload. Am J Physiol 242: C259-C264

    Google Scholar 

  • Fugl-Meyer AR, Eriksson A, Sjöström M, Söderström G (1982) Is muscle structure influenced by genetical or functional factors? Acta Physiol Scand 114: 277–281

    Google Scholar 

  • Fukunaga T (1976) Die absolute Muskelkraft und das Muskel-krafttraining. Sportarzt und Sportmed 11: 255–265

    Google Scholar 

  • Gallagher JR, DeLorme TL (1949) The use of the technique of progressive resistance exercise in adolescence. J Bone Joint Surg 31: 817–858

    Google Scholar 

  • Gardiner G (1963) Specificity of strength changes of exercised and nonexercised limbs following isometric training. Res Q Exerc Sport 34: 98–101

    Google Scholar 

  • Goffert M, Ritchie JM (1952) The effect of adrenaline on the contraction of mammalian skeletal muscle. J Physiol 116: 357–371

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg AL (1971) Biochemical events during hypertrophy of skeletal muscle. In: Alpit NR (ed) Cardiac hypertrophy. Academic Press, New York, pp 301–314

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg AL, Etlinger JD, Goldspink DF, Jablecki C (1975) Mechanism of work-induced hypertrophy of skeletal muscle. Med Sci Sports Exerc 7: 248–251

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg AL, Goodman HM (1969) Amino acid transport during work-induced growth of skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol 216: 1111–1115

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldspink D (1980) Physiological factors influencing protein turnover and muscle growth in mammals. In: Goldspink DF (ed) Development and specialization of skeletal muscle. Society for Experimental Biology, Seminar Series 7. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 67–89

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldspink G, Ward PS (1979) Changes in rodent muscle fibre types during post-natal growth, under nutrition and exercise. J Physiol 296: 453–469

    Google Scholar 

  • Gollnick PD, Timson BF, Moore RL, Reidy M (1981) Muscular enlargement and number of fibres in skeletal muscles of rats. J Appl Physiol 50: 936–943

    Google Scholar 

  • Gonyea WJ (1980) Role of exercise in inducing increases in skeletal muscle fibre number. J Appl Physiol 48: 421–426

    Google Scholar 

  • Gonyea W, Bonde-Petersen F (1978) Alterations in muscle contractile properties and fibre composition after weight lifting exercise in cats. Exp Neurol 59: 75–84

    Google Scholar 

  • Grimby G, Heijne C von, Höök O, Wedel H (1973) Muscle strength and endurance after training with repeated maximal isometric contractions. Scand J Rehab Med 5: 118–123

    Google Scholar 

  • Grimby L, Hannerz J, Hedman B (1981) The fatigue and voluntary discharge properties of single motor units in man. J Physiol 316: 545–554

    Google Scholar 

  • Gutmann E (1976) Neurotrophic relations. Ann Rev Physiol 38: 404–414

    Google Scholar 

  • HÄggmark T, Jansson E, Svane B (1978) Cross-sectional area of the thigh muscle in man measured by computed tomography. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 38: 355–360

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall-Craggs ECB (1972) The significance of longitudinal fibre division in skeletal muscle. J Neurol Sci 15: 27–33

    Google Scholar 

  • Haxton HA (1944) Absolute muscle force in the ankle flexors of man. J Physiol 103: 267–273

    Google Scholar 

  • Hettinger T (1961) Physiology of strength. Charles C Thomas, Springfield, Illinois

    Google Scholar 

  • Hinshaw WS, Andrew ER, Bottomley PA, Holland GN, Moore WS, Worthington BS (1979) An in vivo study of the forearm and hand by thin section NMR imaging. Br J Radiol 52: 36–42

    Google Scholar 

  • Holly RG, Barnett JG, Ashmore CR, Taylor RG, Mole PA (1980) Stretch induced growth in chicken wing muscles: a new model of stretch hypertrophy. Am J Physiol 238: C62-C71

    Google Scholar 

  • Hudlická O, Tyler KR, Srihari T, Heilig A, Pette D (1982) The effect of different patterns of long-term stimulation on contractile properties and myosin light chains in rabbit fast muscles. Pflügers Arch 393: 164–170

    Google Scholar 

  • Ianuzzo CD, Chen V, Armstrong RB, Dabrowski B, Noble E (1981) An experimental model to study chronically hypertrophied skeletal muscle. In: Guba F, Maréchal G, Takács ö (eds) Mechanism of muscle adaptation to functional requirements. Adv Physiol Sci 24: 279–290

  • Ikai M, Fukunaga T (1968) Calculation of muscle strength per unit cross-sectional area of human muscle by means of ultrasonic measurement. Eur J Appl Physiol 26: 26–32

    Google Scholar 

  • Ikai M, Fukunaga T (1970) A study on training effect on strength per unit cross-sectional area of muscle by means of ultrasonic measurement. Eur J Appl Physiol 28: 173–180

    Google Scholar 

  • Ikai M, Yabe K (1969) Training effect of muscular endurance by means of voluntary and electrical stimulation. Eur J Appl Physiol 28: 55–60

    Google Scholar 

  • Jewell RA, Zaimis EJ (1954) Changes at the neuromuscular junction of red and white muscle fibres in the cat induced by disuse atrophy and by hypertrophy. J Physiol 124: 429–442

    Google Scholar 

  • Kameyama T, Etlinger JD (1979) Calcium-dependent regulation of protein synthesis and degradation in muscle. Nature 279: 344–346

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaplan E, Richman HG (1974) Inductive-like stimulation of RNA and protein synthesis by calcium in heart slices. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 58: 112–118

    Google Scholar 

  • Karlsson J, Komi PV, Viitasalo JHT (1979) Muscle strength and muscle characteristics in monozygous and dizygous twins. Acta Physiol Scand 106: 319–325

    Google Scholar 

  • Komi PV, Buskirk ER (1972) Effect of eccentric and concentric muscle conditioning on tension and electrical activity of human muscle. Ergonomics 15: 417–434

    Google Scholar 

  • Komi PV, Viitasalo JT, Rauramaa R, Vihko V (1978) Effect of isometric strength training on mechanical, electrical and metabolic aspects of muscle function. Eur J Appl Physiol 40: 45–55

    Google Scholar 

  • Laurent GJ, Sparrow MP, Millward DJ (1978) Turnover of muscle protein in the fowl. Changes in rates of protein synthesis and breakdown during hypertrophy of the anterior and posterior latissimus dorsi muscle. Biochem J 176: 407–417

    Google Scholar 

  • Lind AR, Petrofsky JS (1978) Isometric tension from rotary stimulation of fast and slow cat muscles. Muscle Nerve 1: 213–218

    Google Scholar 

  • Lindh M (1979) Increase of muscle strength from isometric quadriceps exercises at different knee angles. Scand J Rehab Med 11: 33–36

    Google Scholar 

  • McDonagh MJN, Dooley P, Davies CTM (1984) Training using involuntary electrically evoked contractions does not increase voluntary strength. J Physiol [in press]

  • McDonagh MJN, Hayward CM, Davies CTM (1983) Isometric training in human elbow flexor muscles. J Bone Joint Surgery 65: 355–358

    Google Scholar 

  • MacDougall JD, Elder GCB, Sale DG, Moroz JR, Sutton JR (1980) Effects of strength training and immobilization of human muscle fibres. Eur J Appl Physiol 43: 25–34

    Google Scholar 

  • MacDougall JD, Sale DG, Elder GCB, Sutton JR (1982) Muscle ultrastructural characteristics of elite powerlifters and bodybuilders. Eur J Appl Physiol 48: 117–126

    Google Scholar 

  • MacDougall JD, Ward GR, Sale DG, Sutton JR (1977) Biochemical adaptation of human skeletal muscle to heavy resistance training and immobilization. J Applied Physiol 43: 700–703

    Google Scholar 

  • Maughan RJ, Watson JS, Weir J (1983) Strength and cross sectional area of the knee extensor muscles in man. J Physiol 336: 21–22P

    Google Scholar 

  • Milner-Brown HS, Stein RB, Lee RG (1975) Synchronization of human motor units: possible roles of exercise and supraspinal reflexes. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 38: 245–254

    Google Scholar 

  • Milner-Brown HS, Stein RB, Yemin R (1973) The orderly recruitment of human motor units during voluntary contractions. J Physiol 230: 359–370

    Google Scholar 

  • Moritani T, Vries HA de (1980) Potential for gross muscle hypertrophy in older men. J Gerontol 35: 672–682

    Google Scholar 

  • Munsat TL, McNeal D, Waters R (1976) Effects of nerve stimulation on human muscle. Arch Neurol 33: 608–617

    Google Scholar 

  • Peckham PH, Mortimer JT, Marjolais EB (1976) Alteration in the force and fatiguability of skeletal muscle in quadriplegic humans following exercise induced by chronic electrical stimulation. Clin Orthop 114: 326–334

    Google Scholar 

  • Pette D, Smith ME, Staudte HW, Vrbova G (1973) Effects of long-term electrical stimulation of some contractile and metabolic characteristics of fast rabbit muscles. Pflügers Arch 338: 257–272

    Google Scholar 

  • Prince FP, Hikida RS, Hagerman FC (1976) Human muscle fibre types in power lifters, distance runners and untrained subjects. Pflügers Arch 363: 19–26

    Google Scholar 

  • Rabinowitz M, Zak R (1972) Biochemical and cellular changes in cardiac hypertrophy. Ann Rev Med 23: 245–261

    Google Scholar 

  • Ralston HJ, Polissar J, Inman VT, Close JR, Feinstein B (1949) Dynamic features of human isolated voluntary muscle in isometric and free contractions. J Appl Physiol 1: 526–533

    Google Scholar 

  • Rasch PJ, Preston WR, Logan GA (1961) The effect of isometric exercise upon the strength of antagonistic muscles. Eur J Appl Physiol 19: 18–22

    Google Scholar 

  • Reitsma W (1970) Some structural changes in skeletal muscles of the rat after intensive training. Acta Morphol Neerlando Scand 7: 229–246

    Google Scholar 

  • Romero JA, Sanford TL, Schroeder RV, Fahey TD (1982) The effects of electrical stimulation of normal quadriceps on strength and girth. Med Sci Sports Ex 14: 194–197

    Google Scholar 

  • Rowe RWD (1969) The effect of hypertrophy on the properties of skeletal muscle. Comp Biochem Physiol 28: 1449–1453

    Google Scholar 

  • Roy RR, Meadows ID, Baldwin KM, Edgerton VR (1982) Functional significance of compensatory overloaded rat fast muscle. J Appl Physiol 52: 473–478

    Google Scholar 

  • Royce J (1964) Re-evaluation of isometric training methods. A Must Res Q Exerc Sport 35: 215–216

    Google Scholar 

  • Salmons S (1980) The response of skeletal muscle to different patterns of use — some new developments and concepts. In: Pette D (ed) Plasticity of muscle. Walter de Gruyter & Co, Berlin, New York, pp 387–399

    Google Scholar 

  • Salmons S, Vrbova G (1969) The influence of activity on some contractile characteristics of mammalian fast and slow muscle. J Physiol 201: 535–549

    Google Scholar 

  • Salter N (1955) The effect on muscle strength of maximum isometric and isotonic contractions at different repetition rates. J Physiol 130: 109–113

    Google Scholar 

  • Schantz P (1982) Capillary supply in hypertrophied human skeletal muscle. Acta Physiol Scand 114: 635–637

    Google Scholar 

  • Schantz P, Randall Fox E, Norgren P, Tydén A (1981) The relationship between the mean muscle fibre area and the muscle cross-sectional area of the thigh in subjects with large differences in thigh girth. Acta Physiol Scand 113: 537–539

    Google Scholar 

  • Sola OM, Christensen DL, Martin AW (1973) Hypertrophy and hyperplasia of adult chicken anterior latissimus dorsi muscles following stretch with and without denervation. Exp Neurol 41: 76–100

    Google Scholar 

  • Stone MH, Lipner H (1978) Responses to intensive training and methandrostenelone administration. I. Contractile and performance variables. Pflügers Arch 375: 141–146

    Google Scholar 

  • Thorstensson A, Karlsson J, Viitasalo JHT, Luhtanen P, Komi PV (1976) Effect of strength training on EMG of human skeletal muscle. Acta Physiol Scand 98: 232–236

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Linge B (1962) The response of muscle to strenuous exercise. J Bone Joint Surg 44: 711–721

    Google Scholar 

  • Vrbova G (1963) The effect of motor neurone activity on the speed of contraction of striated muscle. J Physiol 169: 513–526

    Google Scholar 

  • Vrbova G, Gordon T, Jones R (1978) Nerve-muscle interaction. Chapman Hall, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Walmsley B, Hodgson JA, Burke RE (1978) The forces produced by medial gastrocnemius and soleus during locomotion in freely moving cats. J Neurophysiol 41: 1203–1216

    Google Scholar 

  • Walsh JV, Burke RE, Ryner WZ, Tsairis P (1978) Effect of compensatory hypertrophy studied in individual motor units in medial gastrocnemius of the cat. J Neurophysiol 41: 496–508

    Google Scholar 

  • Young A, Stokes M, Walker ICR, Newham D (1982) The relationship between quadriceps size and strength in normal young adults. Ann Rheum Dis 40: 619

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

McDonagh, M.J.N., Davies, C.T.M. Adaptive response of mammalian skeletal muscle to exercise with high loads. Europ. J. Appl. Physiol. 52, 139–155 (1984). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00433384

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00433384

Key words

Navigation