Abstract
One objective of environmental monitoring programs is documentation of qualitative and quantitative environmental changes in response to external stresses, including chemical contamination. Chemical contaminant, biological, and ecological measurements have been used as environmental monitors. Contaminant monitoring allows estimation of exposures; biological and ecological monitoring allow estimation of uptake and effects.
Measurements of ecosystem homeostasis such as nutrient cycling processes have been shown to be good ecosystem level monitors. The rate of dissolved nutrient loss from ecosystems has been conclusively shown to increase as a function of chemical contamination until a new equilibrium is reached, the pollutant input has become negligible, or until nutrient pools have been depleted. Consequently, nutrient pools in environmental strata and in biota are altered and eventually depleted by chemical stress.
The use of nutrient cycling to determine sensitive responses to and long-term changes for chemical contamination is an essential monitoring strategy for environmental management and compliance purposes. Measurements of export (rapid response) and pools (long-term consequences) are within current technology, are cost-effective, and allow rapid implementation of remedial measures or environmental controls.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abrahamsen, G., Horntvedt, R., and Tveite, B.: 1977, ‘Impact of Acid Precipitation on Coniferous Forest Ecosystems’, Water, Air, and Soil Pollut. 8, 57–73.
Agnihotri, V. P.: 1971, ‘Persistence of Captan and its Effects on Microflora, Respiration, and Nitrification of a Forest Nursery Soil’, Can. J. Micro-biol. 17, 377–383.
Alexander, M.: 1961, Introduction of Soil Microbiology, John Wiley and Son, New York. 472 pp.
Ames, B., McCann, J., and Yamasaki, E.: 1975, ‘Method for Detecting Carcinogens and Mutagens with the Salmonella/mammalian-microsome Mutagenicity Test’, Mutat. Res. 31, 347–364.
Amoozequar-Fard, A., Fuller, W. H., and Warrick, A. W.: 1980, ‘The Movements of Salts from Soils Following Heavy Application of Feed-lot Waste, J. Environ. Qual. 9, 269–273.
Anderson, A., Johnson, A. H., and Siccama, T. G.: 1980, ‘Levels of Lead, Copper, and Zinc in the Forest Floor in the Northeastern United States, J. Environ. Qual. 9, 293–296.
Aubertin, G. M. and Patric, J. H.: 1974, ‘Water Quality after Clearcutting a small Watershed in West Virginia’, J. Environ. Qual. 3, 243–249.
Ausmus, B. S. and Hilty, J. W.: 1972, ‘Aerial Detection of Maize Dwarf Mosaic Virus-diseased Corn’, Phytopathology 62, 1070–1074.
Ausmus, B. S. and O'Neill, E. G.: 1979, ‘Comparison of Carbon Dynamics of Three Microcosm Substrates’, Soil Biol. Biochem. 10,425–429.
Ausmus, B. S. and Dodson, G. J.: 1978, ‘Effects of Transuranics on Desert Ecosystem Processes: An Exploratory Study’, pp. 143–156, in: M. G., White and P. B., Dunaway (eds.), Selected Environmental Plutonium Research Reports of the NAEG, NVO-192, Vol. 1, U. S. Department of Energy, Nevada Applied Ecology Group, Las Vegas, Nevada. 318 pp.
Ausmus, B. S., Jackson, D. R., and Dodson, G. J.: 1977, ‘Assessment of Microbial Effects of Cd-109 Movement Through Soil Using Cellulose Acetate Fibers to Extract Soil Water’, Pedobiologica 17, 183–188.
Ausmus, B. S., Dodson, G. J., and Jackson, D. R.: 1978, ‘Behavior of Heavy Metals in Forest Mocrocosms. III. Effects of Litter-soil Carbon Metabolism’, Water. Air and Soil Pollut. 10, 19–26.
Ausmus, B. S., Kimbrough, S., Jackson, D. R., and Lindberg, S.: 1979, ‘The Behavior of Hexachlorobenzene in Pine Forest Microcosms: Transport and Effects on Soil' Processes’, Environ. Pollut. 22, 103–111.
Beath, E., Lundgren, B., and Soderstrom, B.: 1979, ‘Effects of Artificial Acid Rain on Microbial Activity and Biomass’, Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 23, 737–740.
Barrett, G. W.: 1968, ‘The Effects of an Acute Insecticide Stress on a Semi-enclosed Grassland Ecosystem’, Ecology 49, 1019–1035.
Blackburn, T. R.: 1973, ‘Information and the Ecology of Scholars’, Science 123, 1141–1146.
Bormann, F. H. and Likens, G. E.: 1979, Pattern and Process in a Forested Ecosystem, Springer-Verlag, New York, 253 pp.
Brown, G. W., Gahler, A. R., and Martson, R. B.: 1973, ‘Nutrient Losses after Clearcut Logging and Slash Burning in the Oregon Coast Range’, Water Resour. Res. 9, 1450–1453.
Bryant, R. D. and Parkinson, D.: 1978, ‘Effects of Methanol on the Microflora of an Arctic Soil’, Water, Air, and Soil Pollut. 10, 277–290.
Butler, G. C. (ed.): 1978, Principles of Ecotoxicology, John Wiley and Son, New York.
Challinor, J. L. and Gersper, P. L.: 1975, ‘Vehicle Perturbation Effects upon a Tundra Soil-plant System. II. Effects on the Chemical Regime’, Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 39, 689–695.
Cromack, K. Jr., Todd, R. L., and Monk, D.: 1975, ‘Patterns of Basidiomycete Nutrient Accumulation in Conifer and Deciduous Forest Litter’, Soil. Biol. Biochem. 7, 265–268.
Draggon, S. and Giddings, J. M.: 1978, ‘Testing Toxic Substances for Protection of the Environment’, Sci. Total Environ. 9, 63–74.
Duke, K. M., Davis, M. E., and Dennis, A. J.: 1977, IERL-RIP Procedures Manual: Level 1 Environmental Assessment of Biological Tests for Pilot Studies, EPA-600/7-77-043, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. 119 pp.
Edwards, N. T. and Ross-Todd, B. M.: 1979, ‘The Effects of Stem Girdling on Biogeochemical Cycles within a Mixed Deciduous Forest in Eastern Tennessee. I. Soil Solution Chemistry, Soil Respiration, Litterfalls, and Root Biomass Studies’, Oecologia 40, 247–257.
Foster, M. G. and McQueen, D. J.: 1977, ‘The Effects of Single and Multiple Applications of Benomyl and Non-target Soil Bacteria’, Bull. Environ. Contamin. Toxicol. 17, 477–478.
Freedman, B. and Hutchinson, T. C.: 1980a, ‘Effects of Smelter Pollutants on Forest Leaf Litter Decomposition near a Nickel-copper Smelter at Sudbury, Ontario’, Can. J. Bot. 58, 1722–1736.
Freedman, B. and Hutchinson, T. C.: 1980b, ‘Long-term Effects of Smelter Pollution at Sudbury, Ontario, on Forest Community Composition’, Can. J. Bot. 58, 2123–2140.
Gardner, M. R. and Ashby, W. R.: 1970, ‘Connectance of Large Dynamic (Cybernetic) Systems: Critical Values for Stability’, Nature 228, 784.
Gaur, A. C. and Misra, K. C.: 1977, ‘Effect of Simazine, Lindane, and Ceresan on Soil Respiration and Nitrification Rates’, Plant Soil 46, 5–15.
Gersper, P. L. and Challinor, J. L.: 1975, ‘Vehicle Perturbation Effects upon a Tundra Plant System. I. Effects on Morphological and Physical Environmental Properties of the Soils’, Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 39, 737–774.
Gilem, J. D., Colling, J. C., and Garrett, J. W.: 1979, The Soil Core Microcosm—A Potential Screening Tool, EPA-600/3-79-089, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Corvallis, Oregon. 50 pp.
Groet, S. S.: 1976, ‘Regional and Local Variations in Heavy Metal Concentrations of Bryophytes in the Northeastern United States’, Oikos 27, 445–456.
Harris, W. F., Goldstein, R. A., and Henderson, G. S.: 1974, ‘Analysis of Forest Biomass Pools, Annual Primary Production and Turnover of Biomass for a Mixed Deciduous Forest Watershed’, in H. E. Young (ed.), INFOR biomass studies, University of Maine Press, Orono, Maine, pp. 41–64.
Heitschmidt, R. K., Lauenroth, W. K., and Dodd, J. L.: 1978, ‘Effects of Controlled Levels of Sulphur Dioxide on Western Wheatgrass in a Southeastern Montana Grassland’, J. Appl. Ecol. 15, 859–868.
Hutchinson, G. E.: 1948, ‘Circular Casual Systems in Ecology’, Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 50, 221–246.
Hutchinson, T. C. and Whitby, L. M.: 1974, ‘Heavy Metal Pollution in the Sudbury Mining and Smelting Region of Canada. I. Soil and Vegetation Contamination by Nickel, Copper, and other Metals’, Environ. Conserv. 1, 123–132.
Hutchinson, T. C. and Havas, M.: 1978, Effects of Acid Precipitation on Terrestrial Ecosystems, Plenum, New York. 654 pp.
Jackson, D. R. and Watson, A. P.: 1977, ‘Disruption of Nutrient Pools and Transport of Heavy Metals in a Forested Watershed near a Lead Smelter’, J. Environ. Qual. 6, 331–338.
Jackson, D. R., Washburne, C., and Ausmus, B. S.: 1977, ‘Loss of Ca and NO3-N from Terrestrial Microcosms as an Indication of Soil Pollution’, Water, Air, and Soil Pollut. 8, 279–284.
Jackson, D. R., Selvidge, W. J., and Ausmus, B. S.: 1978, ‘Behavior of Heavy Metals in Forest Microcosms. II. Effects on Nutrient Cycling Processes’, Water, Air, and Soil Pollut. 10, 13–18.
Jackson, D. R., Ausmus, B. S., and Levin, M. J.: 1979, ‘Effects of Arsenic on Nutrient Dynamics of Grassland Microcosms and Field Plots’, Water, Air, and Soil Pollut. 11, 13–21.
Lane, P. A., Lauff, G. H., and Levins, R.: 1975, ‘The Feasibility of Using a Holistic Approach in Ecosystem Analysis, in S. A. Levin (ed.), Ecosystem Analysis and Prediction, SIAM, Philadelphia, pp. 111–129.
Likens, G. E., Bormann, F. H., Johnson, N. M., and Pierce, R. S.: 1967, ‘The Calcium, Magnesium, Potassium, and Sodium Budgets in a Small Forested Ecosystem’, Ecology 48, 772–785.
Likens, G. E., Bormann, F. H., Johnson, N. M., Fisher, D. W., and Pierce, R. S.: 1970, ‘Effects of Forest Cutting and Herbicide Treatment on Nutrient Budgets in the Hubbard Brook Watershed Ecosystem’, Ecol. Monogr. 40, 23–47.
Likens, G. E., Bormann, F. H., Pierce, R. S., Eaton, J. S., and Johnson, N. M.: 1977, Biogeochemistry of a Forested Ecosystem, Springer-Verlag, New York. 146 pp.
Martin, W. E. and Bloom, S. G.: 1978, ‘Plutonium Transport and Dose Estimation Model’, in Transuranium Nuclides in the Environment, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, pp. 385–400.
Martin, W. E. and Bloom, S. G.: 1980, ‘Nevada Applied Ecology Group Modeling for Estimating Plutonium Transport and Dose to Man’, in W. C. Hanson (ed.), Transuranic Elements in the Environment, DOE/TIC-22800, U. S. Department of Energy, Technical Information Center, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, pp. 459–512.
May, R. M.: 1973, Stability and Complexity in Model Ecosystems, Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey. 235 pp.
Mazur, A. R. and Hughes, T. D.: 1975, ‘The Nitrogen Transformations in Soil as Affected by Fungicides Benomyl, Dyrene, and Maneb’, Agron J. 67, 755–758.
McGill, W. B.: 1980, Comparative Aspects of Organic C, N, S, and P Cycling Thtough Soil Organic Matter During Pedogenesis, Edmonton University of Alberta, Department of Soil Science.
McNaughton, S. J.: 1977, ‘Diversity and Stability of Ecological Communities: A Comment on the Role of Empiricism in Ecology’, Amer. Nat. 111, 515–525.
Morowitz, H. J.: 1966, ‘Physical Background of Cycles in Biological Systems’, J. Theor. Biol. 13, 60–62.
Morowitz, H. J.: 1974, ‘The Derivation of Ecological Relationships from Physical and Chemical Principles’, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 71, 2335–2336.
Murphy, T.: 1979, Biological Monitoring—A Concept Paper, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development.
Odum, E. P.: 1971, Fundamentals of Ecology, 3rd edition. W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 574 pp.
O'Neill, R. V. and Waide, J. B.: ‘Ecosystem, Theory and the Unexpected: Implications for Environmental Toxicology’, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee. (To be published in B. Cornaby (ed.), Symposium on Management of Toxic Wastes in Our Ecosystems.) (in press.)
O'Neill, R. V., Harris, W. F., Ausmus, B. S., and Reichle, D. E.: 1975, ‘A Theoretical Basis for Ecosytem, Analysis with Particular Reference to Element Cycling’, in F. G. Howell et al. (eds.), Mineral Cycling in Southeastern Ecosystems, ERDA CONF-740513, pp. 28–40.
O'Neill, R. V. and Giddings, J. M.: 1979, ‘Population Interactions and Ecosystem Functions’, in G. S. Innis and R. V. O'Neill (eds.), Systems Analysis of Ecosystems, International Cooperative House, Fairland, Maryland, pp. 103–123.
O'Neill, R. V., Ausmus, B. S., Jackson, D. R., Van Hook, R. I., Van Voris, P., Washburne, C., and Watson, A. P.: 1977, ‘Monitoring Terrestrial Ecosystems by Analysis of Nutrient Export’, Water, Air, and Soil Pollut. 8, 271–277.
Orians, G. (Chairman): 1979, Goals and Criteria for Design of a Biological Monitoring System, Science Advisory Board, U. S. Environmental Agency.
Overton, W. S.: 1975, ‘Decomposability: A Unifying Concept?’ in S. A. Levin (ed.), Ecosystem, Analysis and Prediction, SIAM, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, pp. 297–298.
Parkinson, D., Visser, S., Danielson, R., and Zak, J.: 1980, Reinstatement of Biological Activity in Severely Disturbed Soils, Progress Report 1979–1980. Submitted to the Research Secretariat, Alberta Environment.
Patten, B. C.: 1975, ‘Ecosystem, Linearization: An Evolutionary Design Problem’, Amer. Nat. 109, 529–539.
Pruen, H.: 1973, ‘Effect of Poly(vinyl Propionate) and Butadiene-styrene Co-polymers on the Soil Stabilization of Beet, Lettuce, and Vegetable Seedlings’, Landwirt. Forsch. Sondech. 28, 288–296.
Rao, D. N., Robitaille, G., and LeBlanc, F.: 1977, ‘Influence of Heavy Metal Pollution on Lichens and Bryophytes’, J. Hattori Bot. Lab. 42, 213–239.
Reichle, D. E., O'Neill, R. V., and Harris, W. F.: 1975, ‘Principles of Energy and Material Exchange in Ecosystems’, in W. H. VanDobben and R. H. Lowe-McConnell (eds.), Unifying Concepts in Ecology, Dr. W. Junk, The Hague, pp. 27–43.
Rosen, R.: 1972, ‘Some Systems Theoretical Problems in Biology’, in E. Laszlo (ed.), The Relevance of General Systems Theory. Braziller, New York, pp. 43–66.
Ruhling, A. and Tyler, G.: 1973, ‘Heavy Metal Pollution and Decomposition of Spruce Needle Litter’, Oikos 24, 402–416.
Schindler, J. E., Waide, J. B., Waldron, M. C., Hains, J. J., Schreiner, S. P., Freedman, M. L., Benz, S. L., Pettigrew, D. P., Schissel, L. A., and Clark, P. J.: 1980, ‘A Microcosm Approach to the Study of Biogeochemical Systems: 1. Theoretical Rationale’, in J. P. Geisy (ed.), Microcosms in Ecological Research, DOE Symp. Ser.
Schwartz, C. C., Lauenroth, W. K., Heitschmidt, R. K., and Dodd, J. L.: 1978, ‘Effects of Controlled Levels of Sulphur Dioxide on Nutrient Quality of Western Wheatgrass’, J. Appl. Ecol. 15, 869–874.
Shugart, H. H., Riechle, D. E., Edwards, N. T., and Kercher, J. R.: 1976, ‘A Model of Calcium-cycling in an East Tennessee Liriodendron Forest: Model Structure, Parameters, and Frequency Response Analysis’, Ecology 57, 99–109.
Smith, W., Bormann, F. H., and Likens, G. E.: 1968, ‘Response of Chemoautotrophic Nitrifiers to Forest Cutting’, Soil Sci. 106, 471–473.
Smith, S. J., Mathers, A. C., and Stewart, B. A.: 1980, ‘Distribution of Nitrogen Forms in Soil Receiving Cattle Feedlot Waste’, J. Environ. Qual. 9, 215–218.
Stefan, M. B. and Rudolph, E. D.: 1979, ‘Terrestrial Bryophytes as Indicators of Air Quality in Southeastern Ohio and Adjacent West Virginia’, Ohio J. Sci. 79, 205–212.
Tamm, C. O.: 1976, ‘Acid Precipitation: Biological Effects in Soil and on Forest Vegetation’, Ambio 5, 235–238.
Timm, H., Flocker, W. J., Akesson, N. B., and O'Brien, M.: 1980, ‘Mineralization of Soil Incorporated Tomato Solid Waste’, J. Environ. Qual. 9, 211–218.
Tyler, G.: 1972, ‘Heavy Metals Pollute Nature May Reduce Productivity’, Ambio 2, 52–59.
Tyler, B.: 1974, ‘Heavy Metals Pollution and Soil Enzymatic Activity’, Plant Soil 41, 303–311.
Vitousek, P. M.: 1977, ‘The Regulation of Element Concentrations in Mountain Streams in the Northeastern United States’, Ecol. Monogr. 47, 65–87.
Vitousek, P. M. and Melillo, J. M.: 1979, ‘Nitrate Losses from Disturbed Forests: Patterns and Mechanisms’, Forest Sci. 25, 609–619.
Vitousek, P. M., Gosz, J. R., Grier, C. C., Melillo, J. M., Reiners, W. A., and Todd, R. L.: 1979, ‘Nitrate Losses from Disturbed Ecosystems’, Science 204, 469–474.
Waide, J. B. and Webster, J. R.: 1976, ‘Engineering Systems Analysis: Applicability to Ecosystems’, in B. C. Patten (ed.), Systems Analysis Simulation in Ecology, Vol. IV, Academic, New York, pp. 329–371.
Wainwright, M. and Pugh, G. J. F.: 1974, ‘The Effects of Fungicide on Certain Chemical and Microbiological Properties of Soils’, Soil Biol. Biochem. 6, 263–267.
Walker, T. W. and Adams, A. F. P.: 1958, ‘Studies on Soil Organic Matter. I. Influence of Phosphorus Content of Parent Materials on Accumulation of Carbon, Nitrogen, Sulphur, and Organic Phosphorus of Grassland Soils’, Soil Sci. 85, 307–318.
Ward, D. J. and Wilson, R. E.: 1973, ‘Pesticide Effects on Decomposition and Recycling of Avane Litter in a Monoculture Ecosystem’, Amer. Midl. Natur. 90, 266–276.
Weiss, P. A.: 1971, ‘The Basic Concept of Hierarchic Systems’, in P. A. Weiss (ed.), Hierarchically Organized Systems in Theory and Practice, Hafner Publishing, New York, pp. 1–44.
Ziegler, I.: 1975, ‘The Effects of SO2 on Plant Metabolism’, Res. Rev. 56, 79–105.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ausmus, B.S. An argument for ecosystem level monitoring. Environ Monit Assess 4, 275–293 (1984). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00394146
Received:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00394146