Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The organization of the early embryo of bufo cognatus as revealed especially by the mitotic index

  • Published:
Zeitschrift für Zellforschung und Mikroskopische Anatomie Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Summary and Conclusions

The present study has shown the following facts concerning the early embryology of Bufo cognatus:

  1. 1.

    In their essentials, the descriptive phases of the early embryonic development follow the well known amphibian pattern.

  2. 2.

    The mitotic index decreases as development progresses. There is a very sudden and marked decline soon after the onset of gastrulation.

  3. 3.

    Gastrulation is the most important stage in the organization of the embryo. During this time, important centers of proliferation are set up which produce cells concerned in the organization.

  4. 4.

    Epiboly is involved only to a limited extent in gastrulation. The endoderm arises mostly from heavily yolk-laden cells.

  5. 5.

    The notochord comes neither from endoderm as such nor mesoderm as such but is produced with these from a mass of rapidly dividing cells of the yolk region designated here as endo-chordo-mesoderm.

  6. 6.

    Cell movements from centers of mitotic activity play a major part in the organization of the embryo.

  7. 7.

    Specifically, ten centers of mitotic activity have been recognized each of which produces cells which move to a fairly well defined region. These centers have been shown to produce cells which later form (a) the neural tube, (b) most of the endoderm, (c) most if not all of the mesothelium, and (d) the notochord. In addition certain of them contribute to the market apparent lengthening of the body which begins directly after the blastopore closes.

  8. 8.

    The two most striking things shown are (a) that there is often a marked asymmetry in the position of the mitotic centers (as was also found in a teleost fish by Self, 1937) and (b) that internal movements of cells as well as the external movements shown by others for various Amphibia are involved in a very important way in the early organization of an amphibian embryo.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Bibliography

  • Adolph, E. F.: The size of the body and the size of the environment in the growth of tadpoles. Biol. Bull. Mar. biol. Labor. Woods Hole 61, 350–375 (1931).

    Google Scholar 

  • Balinsky, B. I.: Über den Teilungsrhythmus bei der Entwicklung des Eies der Ascidie Ciona intestinalis. Roux' Arch. 125, 155–175 (1931).

    Google Scholar 

  • : A qualitative and quantitative investigation of the limb-forming potency in the lateral region. Academie des Sci. d'Ukarine: Trav. Inst. Zool. et Biol. 1, 91–135 (1931a).

    Google Scholar 

  • Ballamy, A. W.: Differential susceptibility as a basis for modification and control of early development in the frog. Biol. Bull. Mar. biol. Labor. Woods Hole 37, 312–370 (1919).

    Google Scholar 

  • Bragg, Arthur N.: Notes on the breeding habits, eggs, and embryos of Bufo cognatus with a description of the tadpole. Copeia, 1. May 1936, 14–20.

  • : Observations on Bufo cognatus with special reference to the breeding habits and eggs. Amer. Midl. Nat. 18, 273–284 (1937).

    Google Scholar 

  • Cannon, H. G.: On the metabolic gradient of the frog's egg. Proc. roy. Soc., Lond. B 94, 232–249 (1923).

    Google Scholar 

  • Champy, Christian: L'action de l'extrait thyroidien sur la multiplication cellulaire. Caractère électif de cette action. Arch. de Morph. 4, 1–56 (1922).

    Google Scholar 

  • Goerttler, K.: Die Form-bildung der Medullaranlage bei Urodelen. Roux' Arch. 106, 503–541 (1925).

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldsmith, Joseph B.: A new fixation of general value. Trans. amer. microsc. Soc. 48, 216, 217 (1929).

    Google Scholar 

  • Gräper, L.: Die Primitiventwicklung des Hühnchens nach stereokinematographischen Untersuchungen; kontrolliert durch vitale Farbmarkierung und verglichen mit der Entwicklung anderer Wirbeltiere. Roux' Arch. 116, 382–429 (1929).

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamlett, G. W. D.: Some notes on embryological technique. Science (N. Y.) 76, 237, 238 (1932).

    Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, Ross G.: Correlation in the development and growth of the eye studied by means of heteroplastic transplantation. Roux' Arch. 120, 1–55 (1929).

    Google Scholar 

  • Derrick, Ethel: An analysis of the early development of the chick by means of the mitotic index. J. Morph. a. Physiol. 61, 257–284 (1937).

    Google Scholar 

  • Eycleshymer, A. C.: The early development of Amblystoma with observations on some other vertebrates. J. of Morph. 10, 343–418 (1895).

    Google Scholar 

  • : The location of the basis of the amphibian embryo. J. of Morph. 14, 467–480 (1898).

    Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, Hilda and Leo Loeb: The mitotic index of the thyroid gland in the guinea pig and rat. Anat. Rec. 59, 5–14 (1934).

    Google Scholar 

  • George, W. C.: Experiments on the determination of the fate of the gray crescent material in the frog egg. Biol. Bull. Mar. biol. Labor. Woods Hole 35, 255–259 (1918).

    Google Scholar 

  • Glaser, O. C.: On the mechanism of morphological differentiation in the nervous system. I. The transformation of a neural plate into a neural tube. Anat. Rec. 8, 525–551 (1914).

    Google Scholar 

  • Hyman, Libbie H.: The metabolic gradients of vertebrate embryos. I. Teleost embryos. Biol. Bull. Mar. biol. Labor. Woods Hole 40, 32–72 (1921).

    Google Scholar 

  • : The metabolic gradients of vertebrate embryos. II. The brook lamprey. Jour. Morph. a. Physiol. 42, 111–141 (1926).

    Google Scholar 

  • : The metabolic gradients of vertebrate embryos. III. The chick. Biol. Bull. Mar. biol. Labor. Woods Hole 62, 1–37 (1927).

    Google Scholar 

  • : The metabolic gradients of vertebrate embryos. IV. The heart. Biol. Bull. Mar. biol. Labor. Woods Hole 52, 39–50 (1927 a).

    Google Scholar 

  • Lynn, W. G. and Abraham Edelmann: Crowding and metamorphosis in the tadpole. Ecology 17, 104–110 (1936).

    Google Scholar 

  • Minot, C. S.: The problem of age, growth and death. New York City: Putnam 1908.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oliva, C. and E. Slavitch: Ricerche sulla velocitá dell'accrescimento delle cellule e degli organi. I. Accrescimento ponderale, coefficiente mitotico dell'accrescimiente e durata della mitosi e dell'intercinesi nel cuore di polio embrionale. Roux' Arch. 121, 96–110 (1930).

    Google Scholar 

  • Pasteels, J.: Études sur la gastrulation des vertébrés méroblastiques. I. Téléostéens. Archives de Biol. 47, 205–308 (1936).

    Google Scholar 

  • Porta, E., (E. Profili): Sulla distribuzione topografica delle mitosi nel cuore di embrioni di pollo nei primi due giorni di incubazione. Bull. Soc. Biol. sper. 5, 897–899 (1930).

    Google Scholar 

  • Richards, A.: Analysis of early development of fish embryos by means of the mitotic index. I. The use of the mitotic index. Amer. J. Anat. 56, 355–363 (1935).

    Google Scholar 

  • Richards, A. and Ray P. Porter: Analysis, etc. II. The mitotic index in pre-neural tube stage of Fundulus heteroclitus. Amer J. Anat. 56, 365–393 (1935).

    Google Scholar 

  • Richards, A. and Babette L. Shumacher: Analysis, etc. III. The mitotic index of young embryos of Coregonus clupeiformis. Amer. J. Anat. 56, 395–408 (1935).

    Google Scholar 

  • Rugh, Roberts: The space factor in the growth rate of tadpoles. Ecology 15, 407–411 (1934).

    Google Scholar 

  • : The spectral effect on the growth rate of tadpoles. Physiologic. Zool. 8, 186–195 (1935).

    Google Scholar 

  • Rulon, Olin: Differential reduction of Janus green during development of the chick. Protoplasma (Berl.) 24, 343–364 (1935).

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmalhausen, I.: Beiträge zur quantitativen Analyse der Formbildung. II. Das Problem des proportionalen Wachstums. Roux' Arch. 110, 3–63 (1927).

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmalhausen, I.: Das Wachstumsgesetz als Gesetz der progressiven Differenzierung. Roux' Arch. 123, 153–178 (1930).

    Google Scholar 

  • Schotté, Oscar: Xenoplastic inductions. Amer. Soc. Zool. Abst. Anat. Rec. Suppl. 64, 30 (1932).

    Google Scholar 

  • Self, J. Teaguc: Analysis of the development of fish embryos by means of the mitotic index. IV. The process of differentiation in the early embryos of Gambusia affinis affinis. Z. Zellforsch. 26, 673–695 (1937).

    Google Scholar 

  • Shearer, C.: A Reinvestigation of Metabolic Gradient. J. of exper. Biol. 7, 260–268 (1930).

    Google Scholar 

  • Shultz, Audrey F.: The mitotic index of the chick. Thesis, Univ. of Okla. Library 1918.

  • Shultz, Audrey F.: The mitotic index of the chick. Proc. Okla. Acad. Sci. 2, 45–48 (1922).

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, Bertram G.: The embryology of Cryptobranchus allegheniensis. I. Introduction: The history of the egg before cleavage. J. of Morph. 23, 61–160 (1912).

    Google Scholar 

  • : An experimental study of concrescence in the embryo of Cryptobranchus allegheniensis. Biol. Bull. Mar. biol. Labor. Woods Hole 26, 245–261 (1914).

    Google Scholar 

  • Spemann, Hans: Über die Determination der ersten Organanlagen des Amphibien-Embryos. Roux' Arch. 43, 448–555 (1918).

    Google Scholar 

  • : Some factors of animal development. Brit. J. exper. Biol. 11, 493–504 (1925).

    Google Scholar 

  • Stockard, C. R.: Developmental rate and structural expression. Amer. J. Anat. 28, 115–278 (1921).

    Google Scholar 

  • Stough, H. B.: Modified mitosis in the chick embryo. J. Morph. a. Physiol. 52, 535–563 (1931).

    Google Scholar 

  • : Further studies on modified mitosis. J.Morph. a. Physiol. 58, 221–256 (1935).

    Google Scholar 

  • Syngajewskaja, E.: Vergleichung des Teilungstempos bei undeterminierter (Campanularia, Hydrozoa) und determinierter (Rhabditis, Nematoda) Furchung. Roux' Arch. 125, 176–188 (1931).

    Google Scholar 

  • Trowbridge, A. H. and M. S. Trowbridge: Notes on the cleavage rate of Scaphiopus bombifrons Cope with additional remarks on certain aspects of its life history. Amer. Naturalist 71, 460–480 (1937).

    Google Scholar 

  • Vogt, W.: Gestaltungsanalyse am Amphibienkeim mit örtlicher Vitalfärbung. I. Methodik und Wirkungsweise der örtlichen Vitalfärbung mit Agar als Farbträger. Roux' Arch. 106, 542–610 (1925).

    Google Scholar 

  • : Über Wachstum und Gestaltungsbewegungen am hinteren Körperende der Amphibien. Anat. Anz. 61, 62–75 (1926).

    Google Scholar 

  • : Gestaltungsanalyse am Amphibienkeim bei Vitalfärbung. II. Gastrulation und Mesodermbildung bei Urodelen und Anuren. Roux' Arch. 120, 384–706 (1929).

    Google Scholar 

  • Waddington, C. H.: Developmental mechanics of chick and duck embryos. Nature (Lond.) 125, 924, 925 (1930).

    Google Scholar 

  • : Induction by the endoderm in birds. Roux' Arch. 128, 522 (1933).

    Google Scholar 

  • : The development of isolated parts of the chick blastoderm. J. of exper. Zool. 71, 273–291 (1935).

    Google Scholar 

  • : The origin of competence for lens formation in the Amphibia. J. of exper. Biol. 13, 86–92 (1936).

    Google Scholar 

  • Wetzel, R.: Untersuchungen am Hühnchen. Die Entwicklung des Keims während der ersten beiden Bruttage. Roux' Arch. 119, 188–321 (1929).

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. Arthur N. Bragg
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Additional information

Contributions of the Zoological Laboratory of the University of Oklahoma, No. 185. Based upon a portion of a thesis submitted to the graduate faculty in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, 1937.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Bragg, A.N. The organization of the early embryo of bufo cognatus as revealed especially by the mitotic index. Z. f. Zellforschung u. mikr. Anatomie. 28, 154–178 (1938). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00369008

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00369008

Keywords

Search

Navigation