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A biomechanical analysis of spitting in archer fishes (Pisces, Perciformes, Toxidae)

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Summary

The archer fish (Toxotes) is famous for its ability to shoot down prey from overhanging foliage. However, the biomechanics of the spitting act is relatively unknown. This study analyses the structures needed to generate the pressures involved in shooting water droplets up to 1.20 m above the water surface. The results of motion pictures (300 frames/s), combined with electromyographic techniques reveal that the spit is monophasic. The results of a three-dimensional mathematical model incorporating the relevant structural dimensions, show that the tongue plays a dominant role. The mouth valves act as a flutter valve, directing the course of the trajectory. The mathematical model is formulated generally and is applicable to other studies of closed kinematic spatial systems encountered in fishes or higher vertebrates.

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Abbreviations

c-br. :

ceratobranchial

cent. :

central

centr. :

centroid

c-hy. :

ceratohyal

cl :

caudal

cleit. :

cleithrum

cond. :

condyle

cop. :

copula

corac. :

coracoid

dent. :

dental

dist. :

distance

dl :

dorsal

e-br. :

epibranchial

ectopt. :

ectopterygoid(al)

e-hy. :

epihyal

entopt. :

entopterygoid(al)

epax. :

epaxial

e-scap. :

extrascapula

fct :

facet

gl-hy. :

glossohyal

h-br. :

hypobranchial

h-hy. :

hypohyal

hy. :

hyoid

hyom. :

hyomandibula

hyp. :

hypaxial

if-orb. :

infraorbital

i-hy. :

interhyal

ins. :

insertion

i-op. :

interoperculum

i-orb. :

interorbital

l. :

ligamentum

lacr. :

lacrimal

m. :

musculus

m.add.arc.pal. :

m. adductor arcus palatini

m.add.mand. :

m. adductor mandibulae

m.add.op. :

m. adductor operculi

m.dil.op. :

m. dilatator operculi

m. geniohy. :

m. geniohyoideus

m.hyohy.inf. :

m. hyohyoideus inferior

m.i-mand. :

m. intermandibularis

m.lev.arc.pal. :

m. levator arcus palatini

m.lev.op. :

m. levator operculi

m.protr.pect. :

m. protractor pectoralis

m.sternohy. :

m. sternohyoideus

mand. :

mandibula, mandibular

max. :

maxilla(ry)

metapt. :

metapterygoid

musc. :

musculature

nas. :

nasal

neur. :

neurocranium

N V mand. :

mand. branch of trigeminal nerve

op. :

operculum

or. :

origin

pal. :

palatinum, palatinal

par. :

parietal

pect. :

pectoral

ph.br. :

pharyngobranchial

p.p. :

pro parte

p-pect. :

postpectoral

pr. :

process

premax. :

premaxilla

preop. :

preoperculum

p-sphen. :

parasphenoid

p-temp. :

posttemporal

quadr. :

quadratum

rad. :

radial

rl :

rostral(is)

scap. :

scapula

s-cleit. :

supracleithrum

s-op. :

suboperculum

susp. :

suspensorium

symph. :

symphysis

sympl. :

symplecticum

t. :

tendon

u-hy. :

urohyal

vert. :

vertebra

vl :

ventral

vom. :

vomer(ine)

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Zoological Laboratory, Department of Morphology, State University of Leiden, Kaiserstraat 63, Postbus 9516, NL-2300 RA, Leiden, The Netherlands

    G. C. A. Elshoud & P. Koomen

Authors
  1. G. C. A. Elshoud
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  2. P. Koomen
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Elshoud, G.C.A., Koomen, P. A biomechanical analysis of spitting in archer fishes (Pisces, Perciformes, Toxidae). Zoomorphology 105, 240–252 (1985). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00311967

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00311967

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