Summary
Alpha1-antitrypsin (α1) is a glycoprotein in human serum that inhibits the enzymatic activity of trypsin and other proteolytic enzymes. Its concentration in normal serum is 200–250 mg/100 ml. In certain physiological and pathological situations, such as pregnancy, under contraceptive medication and during inflammation, the level of α1-at is elevated. The physiological role of α1 is not known, but the interaction with proteolytic enzymes from white blood cells is probably important. Electrophoretic techniques distinguish several phenotypes, which can be explained by the existence of several codominant alleles at one locus (probably the structural locus). Two alleles PiZ and PiS cause low concentrations of α1-at in serum: the approximate concentrations of α1-at for the different phenotypes are Z/Z 10%, M/Z 50–60%, S/S 60%, M/S 80%, where the level of 212 mg/100 ml found in the M/M phenotype is taken as 100%; thus the effect of these alleles on the α1-at concentration is additive. Homozygosity for the PiZ allele is strongly associated with chronic obstructive lung disease and there is also an association of COPD and heterozygosity for the PiZ or PiS or both, but to a lesser degree.
Zusammenfassung
α1-Antitrypsin (α1-at) ist ein Glykoprotein des menschlichen Serums. Es hemmt die enzymatische Aktivität von Trypsin und anderen proteolytischen Enzymen. Die Konzentration in normalem Serum beträgt etwa 200–250 mg/100 ml. Unter bestimmten physiologischen und pathologischen Bedingungen, z. B. während der Schwangerschaft, nach Verabreichung von Ovulationshemmern und während einer Infektion, ist der Serumspiegel des α1-at erhöht. Die genaue physiologische Funktion des α1-at ist unbekannt, wahrscheinlich ist aber die Hemmung von proteolytischen Enzymen aus Leukocyten von Bedeutung. Mit Hilfe elektrophoretischer Methoden kann man einige Phänotypen unterscheiden. Diese Phänotypen können durch mehrere codominante Allele an einem Locus, wahrscheinlich dem Strukturlocus, erklärt werden. Zwei Allele, PiZ und PiS, verursachen niedrige Konzentrationen von α1 im Serum: Die ungefähren Serumkonzentrationen von α1-at der verschiedenen Phänotypen sind: Z/Z 10%, M/Z 50–60%, S/S 60%, M/S 80%; die Konzentration von 212 mg/100 ml des M/M-Phänotyps ist hier gleich 100% gesetzt. Die Wirkung der verschiedenen Allele auf die α1-at ist also additiv. Homozygotie für das PiZ-Allel ist statistisch signifikant mit chronisch obstruktivem Lungenemphysem assoziiert. Eine geringere, aber ebenfalls statistisch signifikante Assoziation mit chronisch obstruktivem Lungenemphysem besteht auch für die Heterozygotie PiM/PiZ und PiM/PiS oder nur für eine von beiden Heterozygotien.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ascoli, M., Bezzola, C.: Das Verhalten des antitryptischen Vermögens des Blutserums bei der croupösen Pneumonie. Berl. klin. Wschr. 40, 391–394 (1903).
Augener, W.: Immunanalyse von Glykoproteinen. In: Protides of the Biological Fluids. Proceedings of the 12th Colloquium, Bruges 1964, pp. 363–371, H. Peeters (ed.). Amsterdam-London-New York: Elsevier 1965.
Bundy, H. F., Mehl, J. W.: Trypsin inhibitors of human serum II. Isolation of the alpha1-inhibitor and its partial characterization. J. biol. Chem. 234, 1124–1128 (1959).
Briscoe, W. A., Kueppers, F., Davis, A. L., Bearn, A. G.: A case of inherited deficiency of serum alpha1-antitrypsin associated with pulmonary emphysema. Amer. Rev. resp. Dis. 94, 529–539 (1966).
Cleve, H.: Quantitative immunologische Bestimmung von saurem Glycoprotein und alpha1-Antitrypsin: Serumkonzentrationen bei gesunden Blutspendern. Klin. Wschr. 44, 1256–1260 (1966).
Camus, L., Gley, E.: Action du sérum sanguin sur quelques ferments digestifs. C. R. Soc. Biol. (Paris) 49, 825 (1897).
Editorial, Antitrypsin deficiency in chronic obstructive lung disease. Lancet 1970 I, 71.
Eriksson, S.: Pulmonary emphysema and alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency. Acta med. scand. 175, 197–205 (1964).
Eriksson, S.: Studies in alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency. Acta med. scand. 177, Suppl. 175 (1965).
Erkstam, G., Kiviloog, J., Östling, E.: Alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency and chronic pulmonary disease. Scand. J. Resp. Dis. 49, 311–321 (1968).
Erlanger, B. F., Kokowsky, N., Cohen, W.: The preparation and properties of two new chromogenic substrates for trypsin. Arch. Biochem. 95, 271–278 (1961).
Fagerhol, M. K.: Serum Pi types in Norwegians. Acta path. microbiol. scand. 70, 421–428 (1967).
—: Quantitative studies on the inherited variants of serum alpha1-antitrypsin. Scand. J. clin. Lab. Invest. 23, 97–103 (1969).
—, Braend, M.: Serum prealbumin: Polymorphism in man. Science 149, 986–987 (1965).
—, Eriksson, A. W., Monn, E.: Serum Pi types in some Lappish and Finnish populations. Human Heredity 19, 360–364 (1969).
—, Gedde-Dahl, T., Jr.: Genetics of the Pi serum types. Human Heredity 19, 354–359 (1969).
—, Hauge, H. E.: Serum Pi types in patients with pulmonary diseases. Acta allerg. (Kbh.) 24, 107–114 (1969).
—, Laurell, C.-B.: The polymorphism of prealbumins and alpha1-antitrypsin in human sera. Clin. chim. Acta 16, 199–203 (1967).
—, Tenfjord, O. W.: Serum Pi types in some European, American, Asian and African populations. Acta path. microbiol. scand. 72, 601–608 (1968).
Falk, G. A., Briscoe, W. A.: Alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Ann. intern. Med. 72, 427–429 (1970).
Fallat, R., Kueppers, F., Powell, M., Lilker, E., Nadel, J. A., Murray, J. F.: Chronic obstructive lung disease with intermediate deficiency of alpha1-antitrypsin (Abstr.). Clin. Res. 17, 413 (1969).
Ganrot, P. O., Bjerre, B.: Alpha1-antitrypsin and alpha2-macroglobulin concentration in serum during pregnancy. Acta obstet. gynec. scand. 46, 126–137 (1967).
Gräfenberg, I.: Antitrypsingehalt des mütterlichen Blutserums während der Schwangerschaft. Münch. med. Wschr. 56, 702–704 (1909).
Gross, P., Pfitzer, E. A., Tolker, E., Babyak, M. A., Kaschak, M.: Experimental emphysema: its production with papain in normal and silicotic rats. Arch. environm. Hlth 11, 50–58 (1966).
Guenter, C. A., Welch, M. H., Furgeson, S., Henderson, L., Hammersten, J. F.: Alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency: Heterozygosity, intermediate levels, and pulmonary disease. 13th Aspen Conference on Emphysema Research, 1970. Abstr. in the press. Amer. Rev. resp. Dis.
—, Russell, T. R., Hyde, R. M., Hammersten, J. F.: The pattern of lung disease associated with alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency. Arch. intern. Med. 122, 254–257 (1968).
Hahn, M.: Zur Kenntnis der Wirkungen des extravasculären Blutes. Berl. klin. Wschr. 34, 499–501 (1897).
Haldane, J. B. S.: Heredity and Politics, pp. 179–180. London: George Allen and Unwin, Ltd. 1938. Quoted with permission of the publisher.
Heimburger, N., Haupt, H.: Zur Spezifität der Antiproteinasen des Humanplasmas für Elastase. Klin. Wschr. 44, 1196–1199 (1966).
—, Heide, K., Haupt, H., Schultze, H. E.: Bausteinanalysen von Humanserumproteinen. Clin. chim. Acta 10, 293–307 (1964).
—, Schwick, H. G.: Die Fibrinagar-Elektrophorese. I. Mitteilung: Beschreibung der Methode. Thrombos. Diathes. haemorrh. (Stuttg.) 7, 432–443 (1962).
Hepper, N. G., Black, L. F., Gleich, G. J., Kueppers, F.: The prevalance of alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency in selected groups of patients with chronic obstructive lung disease. Proc. Mayo Clin. 44, 697–710 (1969).
Homer, G. M., Katchman, B. J., Zipf, R. E.: Spectrophotometric method for measuring serum trypsin inhibitor capacity. Clin. Chem. 9, 428–437 (1963).
Hunter, C. G., Pierce, J. A., La Borde, J. B.: Alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency. J. Amer. med. Ass. 205, 93–96 (1968).
Jacobsson, K.: Studies on the trypsin and plasmin inhibitors in human blood serum. Scand. J. clin. Lab. Invest. 7, Suppl. 14, 83–86 (1955).
Kellermann, G., Walter, H.: Investigations on the population genetics of the α1 polymorphism. Humangenetik 10, 145–150 (1970).
Kowalyshyn, T., Sataline, L. R.: Familial emphysema associated with alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency. Dis. Chest 55, 285–289 (1969).
Kueppers, F.: Immunologic assay of alpha1-antitrypsin in deficient subjects and their families. Humangenetik 5, 54–58 (1967).
—: Antigenic similarity of human alpha1-antitrypsin to a corresponding protein in the serum of non-human primates. Experientia (Basel) 24, 1277–1278 (1968a).
—: Genetically determined differences in the response of alpha1-antitrypsin levels in human serum to typhoid vaccine. Humangenetik 6, 207–214 (1968b).
—: Serum alpha1-antitrypsin levels (Letter). New Engl. J. Med. 279, 164 (1968c).
—: Identification of the heterozygous state for the alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency gene in man. Biochem. Genet. 3, 283–288 (1969).
Kueppers, F.: Unpublished observation, 1970.
—, Bearn, A. G.: Inherited variations of human serum alpha1-antitrypsin. Science 154, 407–408 (1966).
—: A possible experimental approach to the association of hereditary alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency and pulmonary emphysema. Proc. Soc. exp. Biol. (N.Y.) 121, 1207–1209 (1966).
—, Briscoe, W. A., Bearn, A. G.: Hereditary deficiency of alpha1-antitrypsin. Science 146, 1678–1679 (1964).
—, Fallat, R. J.: Alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency: A defect in protein synthesis. Clin. chim. Acta 24, 401–403 (1969).
—, Larson, R. K.: Obstructive lung disease and alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency gene heterozygosity. Science 165, 899–901 (1969).
Bearn, A. G., Lock, W.: Unpublished observations, 1970.
Landsteiner, K.: Zur Kenntnis der antifermatativen, lytischen und agglutinierenden Wirkungen des Blutserums und der Lymphe. Zbl. Bakt. I. Abt. Orig. 27, 357–362 (1900).
Laurell, C.-B.: Electrophoretic microheterogeneity of serum alpha1-antitrypsin. Scand. J. clin. Lab. Invest. 17, 271–274 (1965).
—: Antigen-antibody crossed electrophoresis. Analyt. Biochem. 10, 358–361 (1965).
—, Eriksson, S.: The electrophoretic alpha1-globulin pattern of serum alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency. Scand. J. clin. Lab. Invest. 15, 132–140 (1963).
—, Kullander, S., Thorell, J.: Effect of administration of a combined estrogen-progestin contraceptive on the level of individual plasma proteins. Scand. J. clin. Lab. Invest. 21, 337–343 (1968).
Lieberman, J.: Heterozygous and homozygous alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency in patients with pulmonary emphysema. New Engl. J. Med. 281, 279–284 (1969).
—, Mittman, C., Schneider, A. S.: Screening for homozygous and heterozygous alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency. J. Amer. med. Ass. 210, 2055–2060 (1969).
Lindvall, S., Magnusson, O., Orth, K.: On the inhibition of a fibrinolytic enzyme from Aspergillus oryzae by serum. Acta chem. scand. 23, 2165–2174 (1969).
Lopez, V., Oetliker, O., Colombo, J. P., Bütler, R.: Ein Fall von familiärem Alpha1-Antitrypsin-Mangel. Helv. paediat. Acta 19, 296–303 (1964).
Mancini, M., Carbonara, A. O., Heremans, J. F.: Immunochemical quantitation of antigens by single radial immunodiffusion. Immunochemistry 2, 235–254 (1965).
Mazodier, P.: Le deficit constitutionnel en alpha1-antitrypsine, ses raports avec les maladies broncho-pulmonaires chroniques et type obstructif. J. franç. med. Chir. thor. 20, 247–258 (1966).
Meiers, H. G., Beisenherz, D., Brüster, H., Strassburger, D., Greuel, H.: Alpha1-Antitrypsin-Defekt und Lungenemphysem. Dtsch. med. Wschr. 93, 1633–1636 (1968).
Miller, F., Kushner, M.: Alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency, emphysema, necrotizing angiitis and glomerulonephritis. Amer. J. Med. 46, 615–623 (1969).
Ozawa, K., Laskowski, M., Jr.: The reactive site of trypsin inhibitors. J. biol. Chem. 241, 3955–3961 (1966).
Rimon, A., Shamash, Y., Shapiro, B.: The plasmin inhibitor of human plasma. J. biol. Chem. 241, 5102–5107 (1966).
Schönenberger, M.: Streulichtmessungen an Plasmaproteinen. Z. Naturforsch. 10b, 474–478 (1955).
Schultze, H. E., Heide, K., Haupt, H.: Alpha1-Antitrypsin aus Humanserum. Klin. Wschr. 40, 427–429 (1962).
—, Heremans, J. F.: Molecular biology of human serum proteins, p. 354. Amsterdam-London-New York: Elsevier 1966.
Schwick, H. G., Heimburger, N., Haupt, H.: Antiproteinasen des Humanserums. Z. ges. inn. Med. 21, 193–198 (1966).
Shamash, Y., Rimon, A.: The plasmin inhibitors of human plasma. III. Purification and partial characterization. Biochim. biophys. Acta (Amst.) 121, 35–41 (1966).
Smith, J. P., Falk, G. A., Siskind, G. W.: Serum immunoglobulins and alpha1-antitrypsin: Variation with clinical type of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. 13th Aspen Conference on Emphysema Research, 1970. Abstr. in the press. Amer. Rev. resp. Dis.
Stokinger, H. E., Mountain, J. T.: Progress in detecting the worker hypersusceptible to industrial chemicals. J. occup. Med. 9, 537–542 (1967).
Talamo, R. C., Allen, J. D., Kahan, M. G., Austen, K. F.: Hereditary alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency. New Engl. J. Med. 278, 345–351 (1968).
—, Blennerhassett, J. B., Austen, K. F.: Familial emphysema and alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency. New Engl. J. Med. 275, 1301–1304 (1966).
Tarkoff, M. P., Kueppers, F., Miller, W. F.: Pulmonary emphysema and alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency. Amer. J. Med. 45, 220–228 (1968).
Turino, G. M., Senior, R. M., Gang, B. D., Keller, S., Levi, M. M., Mandel, I.: Serum elastase inhibitor deficiency and alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency in patients with obstructive emphysema. Science 165, 709–711 (1969).
Vidal, J., Cazal, P., Robinet-Levy, M., Michel, F. B.: Deficits en alpha1-antitrypsine, groupes Pi et bronchopneumopathies chroniques. Presse méd. 78, 783–786 (1970).
Vogel, F.: Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Humangenetik, S. 468–470. Berlin-Göttingen-Heidelberg: Springer 1961.
Vogel, R., Trautschold, I., Werle, E.: Natural proteinase inhibitors. New York-London: Academic Press 1968.
Welch, M. H., Reinecke, M. E., Hammersten, J. F., Guenter, C. A.: Antitrypsin deficiency in pulmonary disease: the significance of intermediate levels. Ann. intern. Med. 71, 533–542 (1969).
—, Richardson, R. H., Whitcomb, W. H., Hammersten, H. F., Guenter, C. A.: The lung scan in alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency. J. nucl. Med. 10, 687–690 (1969).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Additional information
Recipient of a stipendium from Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Kueppers, F. Alpha1-antitrypsin: Physiology, genetics and pathology. Hum Genet 11, 177–189 (1971). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00274738
Received:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00274738