Skip to main content
Log in

Photoelectrochemistry and the environment

  • Review
  • Published:
Journal of Applied Electrochemistry Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This article builds upon a companion review on electrochemical techniques [1] and discusses photocatalytic methods for the treatment and analysis of pollutants in water and air. Organic, inorganic and microbiological pollutants are considered. Areas wherein further research and development are needed are identified. Finally, perspectives on commercialization of this technology are presented.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. K. Rajeshwar, J. G. Ibanez and G. M. Swain, J. Appl. Electrochem., in press.

  2. H. Gerischer, ‘Physical chemistry’, vol. 9A, Academic Press, New York (1970) p. 463.

    Google Scholar 

  3. S. R. Morrison, ‘The chemical physics of surfaces’, Plenum Press, New York and London (1977).

    Google Scholar 

  4. Y. Y. Gurevich and Y. V. Pleskov, ‘Semiconductors and semimetals’, vol. 19, Academic Press, New York (1983) p. 255.

    Google Scholar 

  5. S. Chandra, ‘Photoelectrochemical solar cells’, Gordon and Breach, New York (1985).

    Google Scholar 

  6. H. O. Finklea (ed.), ‘Semiconductor electrodes’, Elsevier, Amsterdam (1988).

    Google Scholar 

  7. K. S. V. Santhanam and M. Sharon (eds.), ‘Photoelectrochemical solar cells’, Elsevier, Amsterdam (1988).

    Google Scholar 

  8. K. Rajeshwar, P. Singh and J. DuBow, Electrochim. Acta 23 (1978) 1117.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Idem, P. Singh and J. DuBow Appl. Electrochem. 15 (1985) 1.

    Google Scholar 

  10. P. V. Kamat and N. M. Dimitrijevic, Solar Energy 44 (1990) 83.

    Google Scholar 

  11. H. Gerischer, Electrochim. Acta 35 (1990) 1677.

    Google Scholar 

  12. P. V. Kamat, Chem. Rev. 93 (1993) 267.

    Google Scholar 

  13. H. Yoneyama, Crit. Rev. Solid-State Mater. Sci. 18 (1993) 69.

    Google Scholar 

  14. E. Pelizzetti and N. Serpone (eds.), ‘Homogeneous and heterogeneous photocatalysis’, NATO ASI Series, vol. C174, Reidel, Dordrecht, The Netherlands (1986).

    Google Scholar 

  15. M. Schiavello (ed.), ‘Photocatalysis and environment, trends and applications’, NATO ASI Series, vol. C237, Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, The Netherlands (1988).

    Google Scholar 

  16. N. Serpone and E. Pelizzetti (eds.), ‘Photocatalysis; fundamentals and applications’, Wiley-Interscience, New York (1989).

    Google Scholar 

  17. E. Pelizzetti and M. Schiavello (eds.), ‘Photochemical conversion and storage of solar energy’, Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, The Netherlands (1991).

    Google Scholar 

  18. D. F. Ollis and H. Al-Ekabi (eds.), ‘Proceedings of the First International Conference on TiO2 Photocatalysic Purification and Treatment of Water and Air’, Elsevier, Amsterdam (1993).

    Google Scholar 

  19. G. R. Helz, R. G. Zepp and D. G. Crosby (eds.), ‘Aquatic and surface photochemistry’, Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL (1994).

    Google Scholar 

  20. D. F. Ollis, Environ. Sci. Technol. 19 (1985) 480.

    Google Scholar 

  21. E. Pelizzetti, C. Minero and V. Maurino, Adv. Colloid Interfac. Sci. 32 (1990) 271.

    Google Scholar 

  22. D. F. Ollis, E. Pelizzetti and N. Serpone, Environ. Sci. Technol. 25 (1991) 1523.

    Google Scholar 

  23. M. A. Fox, Chemtech., Dec. (1992) 680.

  24. R. W. Matthews, Pure & Appl. Chem. 64 (1992) 1285.

    Google Scholar 

  25. M. Schiavello, Electrochim. Acta 38 (1993) 11.

    Google Scholar 

  26. O. Legrini, E. Oliveros and A. M. Braun, Chem. Rev. 93 (1993) 671.

    Google Scholar 

  27. D. M. Blake, National Renewable Energy Laboratory Report, NREL/TP-430-6084 (May, 1994).

  28. K. Rajeshwar, Spectroscopy 8 (1993) 16.

    Google Scholar 

  29. J. R. Bolton and S. R. Cater, in [19].

  30. M. Grätzel and A. J. Frank, J. Phys. Chem. 86 (1982) 2964.

    Google Scholar 

  31. W. J. Albery and P. N. Bartlett, J. Electrochem. Soc. 131 (1984) 315.

    Google Scholar 

  32. R. Beyerle-Pfnur, K. Hustert, P. N. Moza and M. Voget, Toxicol. Environ. Chem. 20–21 (1989) 129.

    Google Scholar 

  33. C. S. Turchi, J. F. Klausner, D. Y. Goswami and E. Marchand, NREL/RP-471-5345 (Presented at: ‘Chemical Oxidation: Technologies for the Nineties’, Third International Symposium, Nashville, 1993).

  34. K. Okamoto, Y. Yamamoto, H. Tanaka, M. Tanaka and A. Itaya, Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn. 58 (1985) 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  35. K. Okamoto, Y. Yamamoto, H. Tanaka and A. Itaya, ibid. 58 (1985) 2023.

    Google Scholar 

  36. R. W. Matthews, J. Catal. 113 (1988) 549.

    Google Scholar 

  37. R. W. Matthews and S. R. McEvoy, Solar Energy 49 (1992) 507.

    Google Scholar 

  38. R. Terzian, N. Serpone, C. Minero and E. Pelizzetti, J. Catal. 128 (1991) 352.

    Google Scholar 

  39. L. A. Dibble and G. B. Raupp, Environ. Sci. Technol. 26 (1992) 492.

    Google Scholar 

  40. M. R. Nimlos, W. A. Jacoby, D. M. Blake and T. A. Milne, ibid. 27 (1993) 732.

    Google Scholar 

  41. J. H. Carey, J. Lawrence and H. M. Tosine, Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 16 (1976) 697.

    Google Scholar 

  42. B. G. Oliver, E. G. Cosgrove and J. H. Carey, Environ. Sci. Technol. 13 (1979) 1075.

    Google Scholar 

  43. J. H. Carey and B. G. Oliver, Water Pollution Res. J. Canada 15 (1980) 157.

    Google Scholar 

  44. A. L. Pruden and D. F. Ollis, J. Catal. 82 (1983) 404.

    Google Scholar 

  45. C. Hsiao, C. Lee and D. F. Ollis, ibid. 82 (1983) 418.

    Google Scholar 

  46. R. W. Matthews, Water Res. 20 (1986) 569.

    Google Scholar 

  47. R. W. Matthews, Environ. Tech. Lett. 7 (1986) 565.

    Google Scholar 

  48. M. B. Borup and E. J. Middlebrooks, Water Sci. Techn. 19 (1987) 381.

    Google Scholar 

  49. A. E. Hussain and N. Serpone, J. Phys. Chem. 92 (1988) 5726.

    Google Scholar 

  50. P. E. Menassa, M. K. S. Mak and C. H. Langford, Environ. Tech. Lett. 9 (1988) 825.

    Google Scholar 

  51. C. Kormann, D. W. Bahnemann and M. R. Hoffman, Environ. Sci. Technol. 25 (1991) 494.

    Google Scholar 

  52. G. Mills and M. R. Hoffman, ibid. 27 (1993) 1881.

    Google Scholar 

  53. R. W. Matthews, Water Res. 24 (1990) 653.

    Google Scholar 

  54. D. W. Bahnemann, J. Mönig and R. Chapman, J. Phys. Chem. 91 (1987) 3782.

    Google Scholar 

  55. K. Tanaka, T. Hisanaga and K. Harada, J. Photochem. Photobiol. A: Chem. 48 (1989) 155.

    Google Scholar 

  56. R. Borello, C. Minero, E. Pramauro, E. Pelizzetti, N. Serpone and H. Hidaka, Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 8 (1989) 997.

    Google Scholar 

  57. E. Pelizzetti, M. Borgarello, C. Minero, E. Pramauro, E. Borgarello and N. Serpone, Chemosphere 17 (1988) 499.

    Google Scholar 

  58. M. Kerzhentsev, C. Guillard, J.-M. Herrmann and P. Pichat in [l8].

  59. K. Kobayakawa, Y. Sato, S. Nakamura and A. Fujishima, Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn. 62 (1989) 3433.

    Google Scholar 

  60. R. A. Sierka and C. W. Bryant in [18].

  61. G. T. Brown and J. R. Darwent, J. Phys. Chem. 88 (1984) 4955.

    Google Scholar 

  62. J. R. Darwent and A. Lepre, J. Chem. Soc. Farad. II 82 (1986) 1457.

    Google Scholar 

  63. R. W. Matthews, J. Chem. Soc. Faraday 185 (1989) 1291.

    Google Scholar 

  64. Idem, Appl. Radiat. Isot. 37 (1986) 1247.

    Google Scholar 

  65. C. K. Grätzel, M. Girousek and M. Grätzel, J. Mol. Catal. 39 (1987) 347.

    Google Scholar 

  66. K. Harada, T. Hisanaga and K. Tanaka, New J. Chem. 11 (1987) 597.

    Google Scholar 

  67. H. Hidaka, J. Photochem. Photobiol. A. Chem. 42 (1988) 375.

    Google Scholar 

  68. E. Pelizzetti, C. Minero, V. Maurino, A. Sclafani, H. Hidaka and N. Serpone, Environ. Sci. Technol. 203 (1989) 1380.

    Google Scholar 

  69. A. Sclafani, L. Palmisano and M. Schiavello, J. Phys. Chem. 94 (1990) 829.

    Google Scholar 

  70. A. Heller, M. Nair, L. Davidson, Z. Luo, J. Schwitzgebel, J. Norrell, J. R. Brock, S. E. Lingquist and J. G. Ekerdt in [16].

  71. A. Heller and J. R. Brock, in ‘Aquatic and Surface Photochemistry’, edited by G. R. Helz and R. G. Zepp, ACS Symposium Series, American Chemical Society, Washington, DC (1993).

    Google Scholar 

  72. D. Bahnemann, D. Bockelmann and R. Goslich, Solar Energy Mater. 24 (1991) 564.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. For example, J. A. Imlay and I. Fridovich, J. Bacteriol. 174 (1992) 953, and references therein.

    Google Scholar 

  74. T. Matsunaga, R. Tomoda, T. Nakajima and H. Wake, FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 29 (1985) 211.

    Google Scholar 

  75. T. Matsunaga, R. Tomoda, T. Nakajima, N. Nakamura and T. Komine, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 54 (1988) 1330.

    Google Scholar 

  76. M. Okochi, S. Nakasono, H. Wake, N. Nakamura, K. Sode and T. Matsunaga, paper no. 1505, 183rd meeting of the Electrochemical Society, Honolulu, Hawaii (May 1993).

  77. J. C. Ireland, P. Klostermann, E. W. Rice and R. M. Clark, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59 (1993) 1668.

    Google Scholar 

  78. C. Wei, Z. Zainal, W.-Y. Lin, N. Williams, R. L. Smith, K. Rajeshwar and A. Kruzic, Environ. Sci. Technol. 28 (1994) 934.

    Google Scholar 

  79. R. W. Matthews, in [18].

  80. W.-Y. Lin, C. Wei and K. Rajeshwar, J. Electrochem. Soc. 140 (1993) 2477.

    Google Scholar 

  81. N. Serpone, E. Borgarello, M. Barbeni, E. Pelizzetti, P. Pichat, J.-M. Herrmann and M. A. Fox, J. Photochem. 36 (1987) 373.

    Google Scholar 

  82. S. N. Frank and A. J. Bard, J. Phys. Chem. 81 (1977) 1481;

    Google Scholar 

  83. S. N. Frank and A. J. Bard J. Am. Chem. Soc. 99 (1977) 303.

    Google Scholar 

  84. K. Koyo, H. Yoneyama and H. Tamura, J. Phys. Chem. 84 (1980) 1705.

    Google Scholar 

  85. A. J. Bard, Ber. Bunsenges. Phys. Chem. 92 (1988) 1187.

    Google Scholar 

  86. J. Domenech and J. Peral, Solar Energy 41 (1988) 55.

    Google Scholar 

  87. J. Peral and J. Domenech, J. Chem. Tech. Biotechnol. 53 (1992) 93.

    Google Scholar 

  88. J. Peral, J. Casado and J. Domenech, Electrochim. Acta 34 (1989) 1335.

    Google Scholar 

  89. J. Peral, J. Muñoz and J. Domenech, J. Photochem. Photobiol. A: Chem. 55 (1990) 251.

    Google Scholar 

  90. J. Peral and J. Domenech, J. Chem. Tech. Biotechnol. 53 (1992) 93.

    Google Scholar 

  91. J. Doménech and J. Peral, Chem. & Ind. (1989) 606.

  92. N. Serpone, E. Borgarello and M. Grätzel, J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun. (1984) 342.

  93. E. Borgarello, K. Kalyanasundaran and M. Grätzel, Helv. Chim. Acta 65 (1982) 243.

    Google Scholar 

  94. M. Matsumura, Y. Sato and H. Tsubomma, J. Phys. Chem. 87 (1983) 3807.

    Google Scholar 

  95. M. R. Prairie, L. R. Evans, B. M. Strange and S. L. Martinez, Environ. Sci. Technol. 27 (1993) 1776.

    Google Scholar 

  96. J. Doménech and M. Andres, New J. Chem. 11 (1987) 443.

    Google Scholar 

  97. H. Yoneyama, Y. Yamashita and H. Tamura, Nature 282 (1979) 817.

    Google Scholar 

  98. J. Doménech and J. Muñoz, J. Chem. Res. (1987) 106.

  99. Idem and J. Muñoz, Electrochim. Acta 32 (1987) 1383.

    Google Scholar 

  100. Idem and J. Muñoz, J. Appl. Electrochem. 20 (1990) 518.

    Google Scholar 

  101. Idem and J. Muñoz, J. Chem. Tech. Biotechnol. 47 (1990) 101.

    Google Scholar 

  102. Y. Xu and X. Chen, Chem. & Ind. (1990) 492.

  103. M. Trillas, R. Barber, J. Muñoz, J. Peral and J. Doménech, Hazardous Waste and Hazardous Materials 8 (1991) 151.

    Google Scholar 

  104. A. Lozano, J. Garcia, J. Doménech and J. Casado, J. Photochem. Photobiol. A: Chem. 69 (1992) 237.

    Google Scholar 

  105. J. G. Calvert and J. N. Pitts, ‘Photochemistry’, John Wiley & Sons, New York (1966).

    Google Scholar 

  106. J. E. Valladeres and J. R. Bolton in [18].

  107. M. Fujihira, Y. Satoh and T. Osa, Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn 55 (1982) 666.

    Google Scholar 

  108. Idem, Chem. Lett. (1981) 1053

  109. H. Reiche, W. W. Dunn and A. J. Bard, J. Phys. Chem. 83 (1979) 2248.

    Google Scholar 

  110. C. Wagner and W. Traud, Z. Electrochem. 44 (1938) 391.

    Google Scholar 

  111. R. F. Steigerwald, Corrosion 24 (1968) 1.

    Google Scholar 

  112. B. Kraeutler and A. J. Bard, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 100 (1978) 5985.

    Google Scholar 

  113. A. J. Bard, Science 207 (1980) 139.

    Google Scholar 

  114. D. S. Miller, A. J. Bard, G. McLendon and J. Ferguson, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 103 (1981) 5336.

    Google Scholar 

  115. A. J. Bard, J. Phys. Chem. 86 (1982) 172.

    Google Scholar 

  116. H. Gerischer and A. Heller, ibid. 95 (1991) 5261.

    Google Scholar 

  117. C.-M. Wang, A. Heller and H. Gerischer, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 114 (1992) 5230.

    Google Scholar 

  118. J. M. Kesselman, A. Kumar and N. S. Lewis, in [18].

  119. J.-M. Herrmann, J. Disdier and P. Pichat, J. Catal. 113 (1988) 72.

    Google Scholar 

  120. K. Rajeshwar and J. G. Ibanez, J Chem. Educ., in press.

  121. D. M. Blake, J. Webb, C. Turchi and K. Magrini, Solar Energy Mater. 24 (1991) 584.

    Google Scholar 

  122. A. Schafani, L. Palmisano and M. Schiavello, J. Phys. Chem. 94 (1990) 829.

    Google Scholar 

  123. J. Augustynski, Electrochim. Acta 38 (1993) 43.

    Google Scholar 

  124. R. W. Matthews, in [17], p. 427.

  125. Y. Wang and N. Herron, J. Phys. Chem. 95 (1991) 525.

    Google Scholar 

  126. L. E. Brus, Annu. Rev. Mater. Sci. 19 (1989) 471.

    Google Scholar 

  127. A. Henglein, Chem. Rev. 89 (1989) 1861.

    Google Scholar 

  128. H. Miyoshi, S. Nippa, H. Uchida, H. Mori and H. Yoneyama, Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn 63 (1990) 3380.

    Google Scholar 

  129. H. Yoneyama, Res. on Chem. Intermediates 15 (1991) 101.

    Google Scholar 

  130. H. Inoue, T. Torimoto, T. Sakata, H. Mori and H. Yoneyama, Chem. Lett. (1990) 1483.

  131. H. Miyoshi, H. Mori and H. Yoneyama, Langmuir 7 (1991) 503.

    Google Scholar 

  132. H. Gerischer, J. Electroanal. Chem. 82 (1977) 133.

    Google Scholar 

  133. A. J. Bard and M. S. Wrighton, J. Electrochem. Soc. 124 (1977) 1706.

    Google Scholar 

  134. H. Yoneyama, N. Matsumoto and H. Tamura, Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn 59 (1986) 3302.

    Google Scholar 

  135. N. Serpone, E. Borgarello, R. Harris, P. Cahill, M. Borgarello and E. Pellizzetti, Solar Energy Mater. 14 (1986) 121.

    Google Scholar 

  136. R. W. Matthews, Solar Energy 38 (1987) 405.

    Google Scholar 

  137. Idem, J. Phys. Chem. 91 (1987) 3328.

    Google Scholar 

  138. R. W. Matthews, M. Abdullah and G. K.-C. Low, Anal. Chim. Acta 233 (1990) 171.

    Google Scholar 

  139. M. Anpo, N. Aikawa, Y. Kubokawa, M. Che, C. Louis and E. Giamello, J. Phys. Chem. 89 (1985) 5017.

    Google Scholar 

  140. C. S. Turchi and M. S. Mehos, in ‘Chemical oxidation: technology for the nineties’, Second International Symposium, Nashville, Tennessee (1992).

  141. D. H. Kim and M. A. Anderson, Environ. Sci. Technol. 28 (1994) 479.

    Google Scholar 

  142. S. Hotchandani and P. V. Kamat, J. Electrochem. Soc. 139 (1992) 1630.

    Google Scholar 

  143. K. Vinodgopal, S. Hotchandani and P. V. Kamat, J. Phys. Chem. 97 (1993) 9040.

    Google Scholar 

  144. G. Cooper, personal communication (1994).

  145. P. Pichat, C. Guillard, C. Maillard, L. Amalric and J.-C. D'Oliveira, in [15], (courtesy preprint supplied).

  146. G. Al-Sayyed, J. C. D'Oliveira and P. Pichat, J. Photochem. Photobiol. A: Chem. 58 (1991) 99.

    Google Scholar 

  147. M. Grätzel and R. F. Howe, J. Phys. Chem. 94 (1990) 2566.

    Google Scholar 

  148. N. Jaffrezic-Renault, P. Pichat, A. Foissy and R. Mercier, ibid. 90 (1986) 2733.

    Google Scholar 

  149. P. Keller and A. Moradpour, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 102 (1980) 7193.

    Google Scholar 

  150. J.-M. Lehn, J.-P. Sauvage and R. Ziessel, Non. J. Chim. 5 (1981) 291.

    Google Scholar 

  151. H. Yoneyama, N. Nishimura and H. Tamura, J. Phys. Chem. 85 (1981) 268.

    Google Scholar 

  152. P.-A. Brugger, P. Cuendet and M. Gratzel, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 103 (1981) 2423.

    Google Scholar 

  153. M. Koudelka, J. Sanchez and J. Augustynski, ibid. 86 (1982) 4277.

    Google Scholar 

  154. J. Disdier, J.-M. Herrmann and P. Pichat, J. Chem. Soc. Faraday Trans. 179 (1983) 651.

    Google Scholar 

  155. J.-M. Herrmann, J. Disdier and P. Pichat, J. Phys. Chem. 90 (1986) 6028.

    Google Scholar 

  156. D. N. Furlong, D. Wells and W. H. F. Sasse, ibid. 89 (1985) 626.

    Google Scholar 

  157. M. M. Kondo and W. F. Jardin, Water Res. 25 (1991) 823.

    Google Scholar 

  158. A. Sclafani, M.-N. Mazzanega and P. Pichat, J. Photochem. Photobiol. A: Chem. 59 (1991) 181.

    Google Scholar 

  159. S.-I. Nishimoto, B. Ohtani, H. Kajiwara and T. Kagiya, J. Chem. Soc. Faraday Trans. 179 (1983) 2685.

    Google Scholar 

  160. J. Papp, H.-S. Shen, R. Kershaw, K. Dwight and A. Wold, Chem. Mater. 5 (1993) 284.

    Google Scholar 

  161. E. N. Serpone, E. Borgarello, M. Barberi and E. Pelizzetti, Inorg. Chim. Acta 90 (1984) 191.

    Google Scholar 

  162. A. Wold, Chem. Mater. 5 (1993) 280.

    Google Scholar 

  163. K. Domen, S. Naito, T. Onishi, K. Tamara and M. Soma, J. Phys. Chem. 86 (1982) 3657.

    Google Scholar 

  164. M. Abdullah, G. K.-C. Lew and R. W. Matthews, ibid 94 (1990) 6820.

    Google Scholar 

  165. G. K.-C. Low, S. R. McEvoy and R. W. Matthews, Environ. Sci. Technol. 25 (1991) 460.

    Google Scholar 

  166. D. W. Bahnemann, D. Bockelmann, R. Goslich, M. Hilgendorff and D. Weichgrebe, in [18].

  167. K. Hashimoto, T. Kawai and T. Sakata, J. Phys. Chem. 88 (1984) 4083.

    Google Scholar 

  168. M. Fujihira, Y. Satoh and T. Osa, Nature 293 (1981) 206.

    Google Scholar 

  169. K. Tanaka, T. Hisanaga and K. Harada, New J. Chem. 13 (1989) 5.

    Google Scholar 

  170. A. P. Hong, D. W. Bahnemann and M. R. Hoffmann, J Phys. Chem. 91 (1987) 2109.

    Google Scholar 

  171. M. W. Peterson, J. A. Turner and A. J. Nozik, ibid. 95 (1991) 221.

    Google Scholar 

  172. H. Al-Ekabi, B. Butters, D. Delany, J. Ireland, N. Lewis, T. Powell and J. Story, in [18].

  173. R. W. Matthews and S. R. McEvoy, J Photochem. Photobiol. A: Chem. 66 (1992) 355.

    Google Scholar 

  174. J. H. Lunsford, Catal. Rev. 8 (1973) 135, and references therein.

    Google Scholar 

  175. C. D. Jaeger and A. J. Bard, J. Phys. Chem. 83 (1979) 3146.

    Google Scholar 

  176. J. M. Herrmann, J. Disdier, M.-N. Mozzanega and P. Pichat, J. Catal. 60 (1979) 369.

    Google Scholar 

  177. M. S. Wrighton, D. Ginley, P. Wolczanski, A. Ellis, D. Morse and A. Linz, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 72 (1975) 1518.

    Google Scholar 

  178. P. Clechet, C. Martelet, J. R. Martin and R. Olier, Electrochim. Acta 24 (1979) 457.

    Google Scholar 

  179. V. Rao, K. Rajeshwar, V. Pai Verneker and J. DuBow, J. Phys. Chem. 84 (1980) 1987.

    Google Scholar 

  180. P. Salvador and F. Decker, ibid. 88 (1984) 6116.

    Google Scholar 

  181. G. Munuera, A. R. González-Elipe, J. Soria and J. Sanz, J. Chem. Soc. Faraday Trans. 176 (1980) 1535.

    Google Scholar 

  182. C. S. Turchi and D. F. Ollis, J. Catal. 122 (1990) 178.

    Google Scholar 

  183. T. A. Egerton and C. J. King, J. Oil Col. Chem. Assoc. 62 (1979) 386.

    Google Scholar 

  184. J. G. Highfield and P. Pichat, New J. Chem. 13 (1989) 61.

    Google Scholar 

  185. P. Pichat, in [17] p. 277.

  186. J. Warman, M. P. DeHaas, P. Pichat, T. P. M. Hoster, E. A. Van Der Zouwen-Assink, A. Mackor and R. Cooper, Radiat. Phys. Chem. 37 (1991) 433.

    Google Scholar 

  187. S. Tunesi and M. Anderson, J. Phys. Chem. 95 (1991) 3399.

    Google Scholar 

  188. J. Cunningham and P. Sedlak, in [18].

  189. C. S. Turchi, E. J. Wolfrum and M. Nimlos, Fifth Annual Symposium on ‘Emerging Technologies in Hazardous Waste Management’, American Chemical Society, Atlanta, Georgia (1993).

    Google Scholar 

  190. I. Taniguchi in J. O'M. Bockris, R. E. White and B. E. Conway (eds.), ‘Modern aspects of electrochemistry’, vol. 20, Plenum Press, New York (1989) p. 327.

    Google Scholar 

  191. M. Halmann, Nature 275 (1978) 115.

    Google Scholar 

  192. J. C. Hemminger, R. Carr and G. A. Somorjai, Chem. Phys. Lett. 57 (1978) 100.

    Google Scholar 

  193. T. Inoue, A. Fujishima, S. Konishi and K. Honda, Nature 277 (1979) 637.

    Google Scholar 

  194. R. Aurian-Blajeni, M. Halmann and J. Manassen, Solar Energy 25 (1980) 165.

    Google Scholar 

  195. H. Inoue, T. Torimoto, T. Sakata, H. Mori and H. Yoneyama, Chem. Lett. (1990) 1483.

  196. Y. Taniguchi, H. Yoneyama and H. Tamura, Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn 55 (1982) 2034.

    Google Scholar 

  197. H. Yoneyama, K. Wakamoto, N. Hatanaka and H. Tamura, Chem. Lett. (1985) 539.

  198. H. Inoue, M. Yamashita and H. Yoneyama, J. Chem. Soc. Faraday Trans. 88 (1992) 2215.

    Google Scholar 

  199. G. N. Schrauzer and T. D. Guth, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 99 (1977) 7189.

    Google Scholar 

  200. H. Yoneyama, H. Shiota and H. Tamura, Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn 54 (1981) 1308.

    Google Scholar 

  201. K. Hashimoto and A. Fujishima, 183rd Meeting of the Electrochemical Society, Honolulu, Hawaii, May 1993 (Extended Abstract No. 928).

  202. A. Fujishima, L. A. Nagahara, H. Yoshiki, K. Ajito and K. Hashimoto, Electrochim. Acta 39 (1994) 1229.

    Google Scholar 

  203. R. L. Wolfe, Environ. Sci. Technol. 24 (1990) 768.

    Google Scholar 

  204. T. Matsunaga and Y. Namba, Anal. Chem. 56 (1984) 798.

    Google Scholar 

  205. [204]Idem, Anal. Chim. Acta 159 (1984) 87.

    Google Scholar 

  206. R. Enzweiler, L. Wagg, P. Eng and J. Dong, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, Summer Meeting, Seattle, Washington (1993).

  207. C. Turchi, M. Mehos and J. Pacheco, in [18].

  208. D. F. Ollis and C. Turchi, Environ. Progr. 9 (1990) 229.

    Google Scholar 

  209. H. C. Yatmaz, C. R. Howarth and C. Wallis, in [18].

  210. C. Turchi and D. F. Ollis, J. Phys. Chem. 92 (1988) 6852.

    Google Scholar 

  211. R. W. Matthews, ibid. 92 (1988) 6853.

    Google Scholar 

  212. D. Bockelmann, R. Goslich, D. Weichgrebe and D. Bahnemann, in [18].

  213. J. V. Anderson, H. Link, M. Bohn and B. Gupta, Solar Energy Mater. 24 (1991) 538.

    Google Scholar 

  214. W. R. LaCourse and I. S. Krull, Anal. Chem. 59 (1987) 49.

    Google Scholar 

  215. S. G. Weber and J. T. Long, ibid. 60 (1988) 903A and references therein.

  216. M. A. Fox and T. Tien, ibid. 60 (1988) 2278.

    Google Scholar 

  217. G. N. Brown, J. W. Birks and C. A. Koval, ibid. 64 (1992) 427.

    Google Scholar 

  218. T. Matsunaga, T. Suzuki and R. Tomoda, Enzym. Microb. Technol. 6 (1984) 355.

    Google Scholar 

  219. T. Matsunaga, R. Tomoda and H. Matsuda, Microbiol. and Biotechnol. 12 (1984) 1.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Rajeshwar, K. Photoelectrochemistry and the environment. J Appl Electrochem 25, 1067–1082 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00242533

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00242533

Keywords

Navigation