Abstract
This study investigates the role of the human central nervous system (CNS) in the control of fast goaldirected movements. The main problem is that the latencies inherent in the transmission of physiological signals cause a delayed feedback of sensory information. Therefore, the muscle command signals cannot be explained by a simple servo-loop, so a more sophisticated control structure is required. Our hypothesis is that the CNS employs an internal representation of the controlled system in order to circumvent the drawbacks of the physiological loop delay. To test this hypothesis a mathematical model based on an internal representation and an internal state feedback has been developed. Computer simulations of double-step stimuli (control behaviour), tendon vibration and torque disturbances (disturbance behaviour) and load perturbations (adaptation behaviour) proved to agree remarkably well with experimental observations. The proposed control model can explain the open-loop and closed-loop aspects of human motor control. Hence, the use of an internal representation in generating the muscle command signals is very plausible.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Angel RW (1976) Efference copy and the control of movement. Neurology 26:1164–1168
Angel RW (1983) Muscular contractions elicited by passive shortening. In: Desmedt JE (ed) Motor control mechanisms in health and disease. Raven, New York, pp 555–669
Bar-Shalom Y, Fortmann TE (1988) Tracking and data association. Mathematics in science and engineering 179. Academic, London
Bongers P, Van Helmont JB (1988) Design package DESSYS for observer based linear quadratic controllers. (Internal report, TUDWBMR-N-283) Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Delft
Bullock D, Grossberg S (1992) Emergence of tri-phasic muscle activation patterns from the non-linear interactions of central and spinal neural network circuits. Hum Movement Sci 11:157–167
Capaday C, Cooke JD (1981) The effects of muscle vibration on the attainment of intended final position during voluntary human arm movements. Exp Brain Res 42:228–230
Capaday C, Cooke JD (1983) Vibration induced changes in movementrelated EMG activity in humans. Exp Brain Res 52:139–146
Carter RR, Crago PE, Keith MW (1990) Stiffness regulation by reflex action in the normal human hand. J Neurophysiol 64:105–118
Cordo PJ (1990) Kinesthetic control of a multijoint movemBdent sequence. J Neurophysiol 63:161–172
Darling WG, Cooke JD (1987) Movement related EMGs become more variable during learning of fast accurate movements. J Motor Behav 19:309–331
Denier van der Gon JJ (1988) Motor control: aspects of its organization, control signals and properties. In: Wallinga W, Boom HBK, de Vries J (eds) Electrophysiological kinesiology. Elsevier, Amsterdam
Denier van der Gon JJ, Coolen ACC, Erkelens CJ, Jonker HJJ (1990) Self organizing neural mechanisms possibly responsible for muscle coordination. In: Winters WM, Woo SLY (ed) Multiple muscle systems: biomechanics and movement organization. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York
Edin BB, Vallbo AB (1990) Dynamic response of human muscle spindle afferents to stretch. J Neurophysiol 63:1297–1306
Elliot D (1990) Intermittent visual pickup and goal directed movement: a review. Hum Movement Sci 9:531–548
Gielen CCAM, Houk JC (1987) A model of the motor servo: incorporating nonlinear spindle receptor and muscle mechanical properties. Biol Cybern 57:217–231
Gielen CCAM, Van den Heuvel PJM, Denier van der Gon JJ (1984) Modification of muscle activation patterns in fast goal-directed arm movements. J Motor Behav 16:2–19
Glencross DJ (1977) Control of skilled movements. Psychol Bull 84:14–29
Hannaford B, Cheron G, Stark L (1985) Effects of applied vibration on triphasic electromyographic patterns in neurologically ballistic head movements. Exp Neurol 88:447–460
Happee R (1992a) Time optimality in the control of human movements. Biol Cybern 66:357–366
Happee R (1992b) Goal-directed arm movements. I. Analysis of EMG records in shoulder and elbow muscles. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 2:165–178
Happee R (1993) Goal-directed arm movements. III. Feedback and adaptation in response to inertia perturbations. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 3:112–122
Hasan Z (1983) A model of spindle afferent response to muscle stretch. J Neurophysiol 49:989–1005
Inglis JT, Frank JS (1990) The effect of agonist/antagonist muscle vibration on human position sense. Exp Brain Res 81:573–580
Jeannerod M, Prablanc C (1983) Visual control of reaching movements in man. In: Desmedt JE (ed) Motor control mechanisms in health and disease. Raven, New York, pp 13–29
Kleinman DLS, Baron S, Levison WH (1971) A control theoretic approach to manned vehicle systems analysis. IEEE Trans Aut Control AC-16:824–832
Lacquaniti F, Soechting JF (1986) EMG responses to load perturbations of the upper limb. Exp Brain Res 61:482–496
Polit A, Bizzi E (1979) Characteristics of motor programs underlying arm movements in monkeys. J Neurophysiol 42:183–194
Ramos CF, Stark LW (1987) Simulation studies of descending and reflex control of fast movements. J Motor Behav 19:38–61
Ruitenbeek JC (1985) Visual and proprioceptive information in goal directed movements, a system theoretical approach. PhD thesis, University of Delft, The Netherlands
Sanes JN, Jennings VA (1984) Centrally programmed patterns of muscle activity in voluntary motor behavior of humans. Exp Brain Res 54:23–32
Schaafsma A (1991) Posture maintenance at the human elbow joint. PhD thesis, University of Groningen
Schaafsma A, Otten E, van Willigen JD (1991) A muscle spindle model for primary afferent firing based on simulation of intrafusal mechanical events. J Neurophysiol 65:1297–1312
Smeets JBJ, Erkelens CJ, Denier van der Gon JJ (1990) Adjustment of fast goal-directed movements in response to an unexpected inertial load. Exp Brain Res 81:303–312
Smith WM, Bowen KF (1980) The effects of delayed and displaced visual feedback on motor control. J Motor Behav 12:91–101
Smits M (1991) Analysis and recognition of myoelectric activity during fast arm movements as part of the control of prostheses. Masters Thesis, University of Delft, The Netherlands, and Liberty Mutual, Hopkinton, USA
Stassen HG, Johannsen G, Moray N (1990) Internal representation, internal model, human performance model and mental workload. Automatica 26:811–820
van Sonderen JF, Denier van der Gon JJ (1990) A simulation study of a programme generator for centrally programmed fast two-joint arm movements: responses to single and double step stimuli. Biol Cybern 63:35–44
van Sonderen JF, Gielen CCAM, Denier van der Gon JJ (1989) Motor programmes for goal directed movements are continuously adjusted according to changes in target location. Exp Brain Res 78:139–146
Veldhuyzen W, Stassen HG (1977) The internal model concept: an application to modelling human control of large ships. Hum Factors 19:367–380
Wadman WB, Denier van der Gon JJ, Geuze RH, Mol CR (1979) Control of fast goal directed arm movements. J Hum Movement Studies 5:3–17
Wadman WB, Boerhout W, Denier van der Gon JJ (1980) Response of the arm movement control system to force impulses. J Hum Movement Studies 6:280–302
Winters JM, Stark L (1985) Analysis of fundamental human movement patterns through the use of in-depth antagonistic muscle models. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 32–10:826–839
Winters JM, Stark L (1988) Estimated properties of synergistic muscles involved in movements of a variety of human joints. J Biomech 21–12:1027–1041
Yurkovich S, Hoffmann SK, Hemami H (1987) Stability and parameter studies of a stretch reflex loop model. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 34–7:547–553
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Gerdes, V.G.J., Happee, R. The use of an internal representation in fast goal-directed movements: a modelling approach. Biol. Cybern. 70, 513–524 (1994). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00198804
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00198804