Abstract
• Background: Clinical and histopathological evidence of optic nerve axonal loss has been reported in AIDS patients without retinitis. The study was carried out to investigate the possible involvement of HIV-infected cells in the development of optic nerve degeneration. • Methods: Optic nerves were obtained from eight AIDS patients and four normal controls. These nerves were morphologically and immunohistochemically analyzed. Additionally, using PCR amplification techniques, the retina and optic nerve samples obtained from three HIV-seropositive patients and one control were examined for the presence of HIV and cytomegalovirus antigens. • Results: We noted various stages of axonal degeneration in the optic nerves obtained from AIDS patients in whom there was an absence of retinal findings. Characteristic glial changes involving hypertrophic astrocytes, vacuolated oligodendrocytes, and mononuclear phagocyte series cells were also seen in the AIDS optic nerves. HIV DNA was present in at least four of five optic nerves but in only one of five retinas. Control specimens were each negative for all cytomegalovirus and HIV antigens. • Conclusions: Degeneration in the optic nerve may be mediated by HIV-infected macrophages rather than by direct viral infection of neurons. Axonal degeneration due to AIDS at the level of the optic nerve can occur independently of retinal infection.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Barna BP, Estes ML, Jacobs BS, Hudson S, Ransohoff RM (1990) Human astrocytes proliferate in response to tumor necrosis factor alpha. J Neuroimmunol 30:239–243
Brenneman DE, Westbrook GL, Fitzgerald SP, Ennist, DL, Elkins KL, Ruff MR, Pert CB (1988) Neuronal cell killing by the envelope protein of HIV and its prevention by vasoactive intestinal peptide. Nature 335:634–642
Brosnan CF, Selmaj K, Raine CS (1988) Hypothesis: a role for tumor necrosis factor in immune-mediated demyelination and its relevance to multiple sclerosis. J Neuroimmunol 18:87–94
Budka H (1986) Multinucleated giant cells in brain: a hallmark of the acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Acta Neuropathol 69:253–258
Budka H (1989) Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-induced disease of the central nervous system: pathology and implications for pathogenesis. Acta Neuropathol 77:225–236
Budka H, Costanzi G, Cristina S, Lechi A, Parravicini C, Trabattoni R, Vago L (1987) Brain pathology induced by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). A histological, immunocytochemical, and electron microscopic study of 100 autopsy cases. Acta Neuropathol 75:185–198
Cantrill HL, Henry K, Jackson B, Erice A, Ussery FM, Balfour HH (1988) Recovery of human immunodeficiency virus from ocular tissues in patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Ophthalmology 95:1458–1462
Chung IY, Benveniste EN (1990) Tumor necrosis factor alpha production by astrocytes. Induction by lipopolysaccharide, IFN-gamma, and IL-1 beta. J Immunol 144:2999–3007
Currie J, Benson E, Ramsden B, Perdices M, Cooper D (1988) Eye movement abnormalities as a predictor of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome dementia complex. Arch Neurol 45:949–953
Dickson DW, Mattiace LA, Kure K, Hutchins K, Lyman WD, Brosnan CF (1991) Microglia in human disease, with an emphasis on acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Lab Invest 64:135–156
Faber DW, Wiley CA, Lynn GB, Gross JG, Freeman WR (1992) Roles of HIV CMV in the pathogenesis of retinitis and retinal vasculopathy in AIDS patients. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 33:2345–2353
Forster DJ, Dugel PU, Frangieh GT, Liggett PE, Rao NA (1990) Rapidly progressive outer retinal necrosis in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol 110:341–348
Freeman WR, Chen A, Henderly DE, Levine AM, Lutrull JK, Urrea PT, Arthur J, Rasheed S, Cohen JL, Neuberg D, Leung RJ (1989) Prevalence and significance of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome-related retinal microvasculopathy. Am J Ophthalmol 107:229–235
Giulian D, Vaca K, Noonan CA (1990) Secretion of neurotoxins by mononuclear phagocytes infected with HIV-1. Science 25:1593–1596
Grimaldi LME, Martino GV, Franciotta DM, Brustia R, Castagna A, Pristera R, Lazzarin A (1991) Elevated alpha-tumor necrosis factor levels in spinal fluid from HIV-1-infected patients with central nervous system involvement. Ann Neurol 29:21–25
Harried LM, Schatz NJ, Galetta SL (1988) Brainstem ocular motility defects and AIDS. Am J Ophthalmol 106:437–442
Hirt B (1967) Selective extraction of polyoma DNA from infected mouse cell cultures. J Mol Biol 26:365
Ho DD, Rota TR, Schooley RT, Kaplan JC, Allan JD, Groopman JE, Resnick WI, Felsenstein D, Andrews CA, Hirsch MS (1985) Isolation of HTLV-111 from cerebrospinal fluid and neural tissues of patients with neurologic syndromes related to the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med 313:1493–1497
Ho DD, Pomerantz RJ, Kaplan JC (1987) Pathogenesis of infection with human immunodeficiency virus. N Engl J Med 317:278–286
Holman FM, Hinton DR (1992) Tumor necrosis factor-a in the retina in acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 33:1829–1835
Holland GN, Gottlieb MS, Foos RY (1982) Retinal cotton-wool patches in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med 307:1704–1705
Holland GN, Pepose JS, Pettit TH (1983) Acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Ocular manifestations. Ophthalmology 90:859–873
Jabs DA, Green WR, Fox R, Polk BF, Bartlett JG (1989) Ocular manifestations of acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Ophthalmology 96:1092–1099
Johnson BM, Sadun AA (1988) Ultrastructural and paraphenylene studies of degeneration in the primate visual system: degenerative remnants persist for much longer than expected. J Electron Microsc Tech 8:179–183
Kaiser PK, Offerman NJT, Lipton SA (1990) Neuronal injury due to HIV-1 envelope protein is blocked by anti-gp120 antibodies but not by anti-CD4 antibodies. Neurology 40:1757–1761
Kato T, Hirano A, Llena JF, Dembitzer HM (1987) Neuropathology of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) in 53 autopsy cases, with particular emphasis on microglial nodules and multinucleated giant cells. Acta Neuropathol 73:287–294
Kennedy PGE, Newsome DA, Hess J, Narayan O, Suresch DL, Green WR, Gallo RC, Polk BF (1986) Cytomegalovirus but not human T lymphotrophic virus type III/lymphadenopathy associated with virus detected by in situ hybridization in retinal lesions in patients with the acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Br Med J 293:162–164
Khadem M, Kalish SB, Goldsmith J, Fetkenhour C, O'Grady RB, Phair JP, Chrobak M (1984) Ophthalmologic findings in acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Arch Ophthalmol 102:201–206
Kleihues P, Lang W, Burger PC, Budka H, Vogt M, Maurer R, Lüthy R, Siegenthaler W (1989) Progressive diffuse leukoencephalopathy in patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Acta Neuropathol 68:333–339
Koenig S, Gendelman HE, Orenstein JM, Dal Canto MC, Pezeshkpour GH, Yungbluth M, Janotta F, Aksmait A, Martin MA, Fauci AS (1986) Detection of AIDS virus in macrophages in brain tissue from AIDS patients with encephalopathy. Science 233:1089–1093
Lahdevirta J, Maury CPJ, Teppo AM, Repo H (1988) Elevated levels of circulating cachectin/tumor necrosis factor in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Med 85:289–291
Levy J A, Shimabukuro J, Hollander H, Mills J, Kaminsky L (1985) Isolation of AIDS-associated retroviruses from cerebrospinal fluid and brain of patients with neurological symptoms. Lancet 2:586–588
Levy RM, Bredesen DE, Rosenblum ML (1985) Neurological manifestations of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS): experience at UCSF and review of the literature. J Neurosurg 62:475–495
Locardi C, Petrini C, Boccoli G, Testa U, Dieffenbach C, Butto S, Belardelli F (1990) Increased human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) expression in chronically infected U937 cells upon in vitro differentiation by hydroxyvitamin D3: roles of interferon and tumor necrosis factor in regulation of HIV production. J Virol 64:5874–5882
Mastrioanni CM, Liuzzi GM, Vullo V, Delia S, Riccio P (1991) Cerebrospinal fluid markers for the monitoring of AIDS dementia complex severity: usefulness of anti-myelin basic protein antibody detection. AIDS 5:464–465
Meltzer MS, Nakamura M, Haassen BD, Turpin JA, Kalter DC, Gendelman HE (1990) Macrophages as susceptible targets for HIV infection, persistent viral reservoirs in tissue, and key immunoregulatory cells that control levels of virus replication and extent of disease. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 6:967–971
Merril JE, Chen ISY (1991) HIV-1, macrophages, glial cells, and cytokines in AIDS nervous system disease. FASEB J 5:2391–2397
Mintz M, Rapaport R, Oleske J M, Connor EM, Koenigsberger MR, Denny T, Epstein LG (1989) Elevated serum levels of tumor necrosis factor are associated with progressive encephalopathy in children with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Dis Child 143:771–774
Mondino BJ, Sidikaro Y, Mayer FJ, Sumner HL (1990) Inflammatory mediators in the vitreous humor of AIDS patients with retinitis. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 31:798–804
Navia BA, Cho ES, Petito CK, Price RW (1986) The acquired immune deficiency syndrome dementia complex. II. Neuropathology. Ann Neurol 19:525–535
Navia BA, Jordan BD, Price RW (1986) The acquired immune deficiency syndrome dementia complex. I. Clinical features. Ann Neurol 19:517–524
Newman NJ, Lessell S (1992) Bilateral optic neuropathies with remission in two HIV-positive men. J Clin Neuro Ophthalmol 12:1–5
Ou CY, Kwok S, Mitchell SW, Mack DH, Sninsky JJ, Krebs JW, Feorino P, Warfield D, Schochetman G (1988) DNA amplification for direct detection of HIV-1 in DNA of peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Science 239:295–297
Palestine AG, Rodrigues MM, Macher AM, Chan CC, Lane HC, Fauci AS, Masur H, Longo D, Reichert CM, Steis R, Rook AH, Nussenblatt AB (1984) Ophthalmic involvement in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Ophthalmology 91:1092–1099
Pepose JS (1989) Ophthalmic manifestations of HIV infection. Curr Topics AIDS 2:191–206
Pepose JS, Nestor MS, Holland GN, Cochran AJ, Foos RY (1983) An analysis of retinal cotton-wool spots and cytomegalovirus retinitis in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol 95:118–120
Pepose JS, Holland GN, Nestor MS, Cochran AJ, Foos RY (1985) Acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Pathogenic mechanisms of ocular disease. Ophthalmology 92:472–484
Pereira L, Hoffman M, Gallo D, Cremer N (1982) Monoclonal antibodies to human cytomegalovirus: three surface membrane proteins with unique immunological and electrophoretic properties specify cross-reactive determinants. Infect Immun 36:924–932
Petito CK, Cho ES, Lemann W, Navia BA, Price RW (1986) Neuropathology of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS): an autopsy review. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 45:635–646
Pomerantz RJ, Kuritzkes DR, de la Monte SM, Rota TR, Baker AS, Albert D, Bor DH, Feldman EL, Schooley RJ, Hirsch MS (1987) Infection of the retina by human immunodeficiency virus type I. N Engl J Med 317:1643–1647
Qavi HB, Green MT, SeGall GK, Lewis DE, Hollinger FB (1992) Transcriptional activity of HIV-1 and HHV-6 in retinal lesions from AIDS patients. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 33:2759–2767
Quiceno JI, Capparelli E, Sadun AA, Mungula D, Listhaus A, Crapotta J, Lambert B, Freeman WR (1992) Visual dysfunction in AIDS patients without retinitis. Am J Ophthalmol 113:8–13
Resnick L, Di Marzo-Veronese F, Schupbach J, Tourtellotte WW, Ho DD, Muller F, Shapshak P, Vogt M, Groopman JE, Markham PD, Gallo RC (1985) Intra-blood-brain-barrier synthesis of HTLV-III-specific IgG in patients with neurologic symptoms associated with AIDS or AIDS-related complex. N Engl J Med 313:1498–1504
Rhodes RH (1987) Histopathology of the central nervous system in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Hum Pathol 18:636–643
Righi M, Mori L, De Libero G, Sironi M, Biondi A, Mantovani A, Donini SD, Ricciardi-Castagnoli P (1989) Monokine production by microglial cell clones. Eur J Immunol 19:1443–1448
Robbins DS, Shirazi Y, Drysdale BE, Lieberman A, Shin HS, Shin ML (1987) Production of cytotoxic factor for oligodendrocytes by stimulated astrocytes. J Immunol 139:2593–2597
Roy S, Wainberg MA (1988) Role of the mononuclear phagocyte system in the development of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). J Leuk Biol 43:91–97
Sadun AA, Smith LEH, Kenyon KR (1983) Paraphenylenediamine: a new method for tracing visual pathways. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 4:200–206
Sawada M, Kondo N, Suzumura A, Marunouchi T (1989) Production of tumor necrosis factor-alpha by microglia and astrocytes in culture. Brain Res 491:394–397
Scharf SJ, Friedmann A, Brautbar C, Szafer F, Steinman L, Horn G, Gyllensten U, Erlich HA (1988) HLA class II allelic variation and susceptibility to pemphigus vulgaris. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 85:3504–3508
Schmitt-Graff A, Neuen-Jacob E, Rettig B, Sundmacher R (1990) Evidence for cytomegalovirus and human immunodeficiency virus infection of the retina in AIDS. Virchows Arch A Pathol Anat 416:249–253
Selmaj KW, Raine CS (1988) Tumor necrosis factor mediates myelin and oligodendrocyte damage in vitro. Ann Neurol 23:339–346
Selmaj KW, Farooq M, Norton WT, Raine CS, Brosnan CF (1990) Proliferation of astrocytes in vitro in response to cytokines. A primary role for tumor necrosis factor. J Immunol 144:129–135
Selmaj K, Raine CS, Farooq M, Norton WT, Brosnan CF (1991) Cytokine cytotoxicity against oligodendrocytes. Apoptosis induced by lymphotoxin. J Immunol 147:1522–1529
Shaw GM, Harper ME, Hahn BH, Epstein LG, Gajdusek DC, Price RW, Navia BA, Petito CK, O'Hara CV, Groopman JE, Cho ES, Oleske JM, Wong-Staal F, Gallo RC (1985) HTLV-III infection in brains of children and adults with AIDS encephalopathy. Science 227:177–182
Skolnik PR, Pomerantz RJ, de la Monte SM, Lee SF, Hsiung GD, Foos RY, Cowan GM, Kosloff RR, Hirsch MS, Pepose JS (1989) Dual infection of retina with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and cytomegalovirus. Am J Ophthalmol 107:361–372
Sotrel A (1989) The nervous system. In: Harawi SJ, O'Hara CJ (eds) Pathology and pathophysiology of AIDS and HIV-related diseases. Chapman and Hall, London, pp 201–268
Sydow M von, Sonnerberg A, Gaines H, Strannegard O (1991) Elevated alpha-tumor necrosis factor levels in spinal fluid from HIV-1 infected patients with central nervous system involvement. Ann Neurol 7:375–380
Tenhula WN, Xu SZ, Heller K, Freeman WR, Sadun AA (1992) Optic nerve axon losses in AIDS: morphometric comparisons. Am J Ophthalmol 113:14–20
Tyor WR, Glass JD, Griffin JW, Becker PS, McArthur JC, Bezman L, Griffin DE (1992) Cytokine expression in the brain during the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Ann Neurol 31:349–360
Ward RC, Weiner MJ, Albert DM (1989) The eye. In: Harawi SJ, O'Hara CJ (eds) Pathology and pathophysiology of AIDS and HIV-related diseases. Chapman and Hall, London pp 363–377
Williams AE, Blakemore WF (1990) Monocyte-mediated entry of pathogens into the central nervous system. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 16:377–392
Winward KE, Hamed LM, Glaser JS (1989) The spectrum of optic nerve disease in human immunodeficiency virus infection. Am J Ophthalmol 107:373–380
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Sadun, A.A., Pepose, J.S., Madigan, M.C. et al. AIDS-related optic neuropathy: a histological, virological and ultrastructural study. Graefe's Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 233, 387–398 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00180941
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00180941