Abstract
The traditional and prevailing definition of lying is that lying is some variation or combination of: “an untruth told with intent to deceive.” I establish that this is the case, and that, as a result, contradictions and injustices arise. An alternative definition is proposed which is shown to avoid these difficulties. It is also shown that and how on the new definition the alleged “Liar paradox” is easily dissolved.
Similar content being viewed by others
Bibliography
Aquinas, St. Thomas: 1972, “Lying” in Summa Theologiae, McGraw-Hill, New York, 2a, 2ae, Q110, pp. 133–167.
St. Augustine: 1952, “Against Lying”, in R. Deferrari, ed. St. Augustine: Treatises on Various S Subjects, H. Jaffee, tr. Catholic University of America Press, Washington, D.C., Ch. 12, pp. 111–179. (Written 25 years after “Of Lying”)
St. Augustine: 1955, Enchiridion, in B. A. Outler, tr. and ed., Library of Christian Classics, Westminster, Philadelphia, Vol. 7 Ch. 6, pp. 348–350.
St. Augustine: 1956, “On Lying”, in P. Schaff, ed., Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, W. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, MI, pp. 457–477. Written ca. 395 A.D.
Becker, Walter: 1948, Der Tatbestand der Lüge, Mohr, Tübingen.
Bok, Sissela: 1978, Lying: Moral Choice in Public and Private Life, Ramdom House, New York.
Brockhaus Enzyklopädie: 1969, Brockhaus, Wiesbaden, Vol. 7.
Brugger, W.: 1976, Philosophisches Wörterbuch, Herder, Freiburg, p. 230.
The Catholic Encylopedia: 1910, Appleton, New York, 15 vols, Vol. 9, p. 469.
Chisholm, Roderick and T. Feehan: 1977, ‘The Intent to Deceive’, Journal of Philosophy 74, No. 3, 143–159.
Davidson, Donald: 1979, “What Metaphors Mean”, in S. Sacks On Metaphor, University of Chicago Press.
Dewey, John: 1964 (1938), Logic: The Theory of Inquiry, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York.
Diccionario Etimologico: Español E Hispanico: 1954, Garcia de Diego, ed., Editirial S.A.E.T.A., Madrid.
(D. L. E.) Diccionario de la Lengua Española: 1956, Real Academia Española, Madrid.
Dictionnaire de L'AAncienne Langue Française: 1965, Kraus Reprint, Vaduz, Vol. 5, p. 231.
Dubois, Jean, et al.: 1966, Dictionnaire du Français Contemporain, Librairie Larousse, Paris.
Duden: Das grosse Wörterbuch der deutsche Sprache: 1976, Bibliographisches Institut, Mannheim, Vol 4, p. 1706.
Eck, Marcel: 1970, Lies and Truth, tr. B. Murchland, MacMillan, New York.
Ellis, Albert and R. Grieger: 1977, Handbook of Rational-Emotive Therapy, Springer, New York.
Enciclopedia Filosofica: 1967, Sansoni, Firenze, Vol. 4, pp. 539–540.
(E. U. I.) Enciclopedia Universal Ilustrada: 1958, Espasa-Calpe, Madrid, Vol. 34.
Fagothey, Austin: 1972, Right and Reason: Ethics in Theory and Practice, Mosby, St. Louis.
Falkenberg, Gabriël: 1982, Lügen: Grundzüge einer Theorie sprachlicher Täuschung, Max Niemeyer, Tübingen.
Gadamer, Hans-Georg: 1972, “Semantics and Hermeneutics” Tr. P. Smith, D. Linge, ed., in Philosophical Hermeneutics, University of California Press, Berkeley.
Goldstein, L.: 1985, ‘The Paradox of The Liar — A Case of Mistaken Identity’, Analysis 45, p. 12.
Grand Larousse encyllopedique: 1963, Librairie Larousse, Paris, p. 257.
Hehlmann, Wilhelm: 1974, Wörterbuch der Psychologie, Alfred Kröner, Stuttgart, p. 304.
Isenberg, Arnold: 1964, ‘Deontology and the Ethics of Lying’, Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 24, No. 4, 463–480.
Johnson, Samuel: 1755 (1967) Dictionary of the Language, 2 vols., AMS Press, New York.
Kant, Immanuel: 1930 (1963), Lectures on Ethics, tr. L. Infield, Harper Row, New York.
Kant, Immanuel: 1964 (1797) The Metaphysics of Morals Part II, Bobbs-Merrill, New York.
Kempson, Ruth: 1977, Semantic Theory, Cambridge University Press.
Klappenbach, R. and W. Steinitz: 1969, Wörterbuch der Deutschen Gegenwartssprache, Akademie Verlag, Berlin.
Koyré, A.: 1946 ‘The Liar’, Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 6, 344–362.
ecoanet, Regis: 1987, ‘Review of Shibles Lying: A Critical Analysis’, Revue de Metaphysique et de Morale P. Ricoeur, ed., 2, April–June.
Lindskold, Svenn and P. Walters: 1983, ‘Categories for Acceptability of Lies’, The Journal of Social Psychology 120, 129–136.
Lipmann, Otto and P. Plaut, eds.: 1927, Die Lüge in psychologischer philosophischer ... Betrachtung, Verlag J. Barth, Leipzig.
Ludwig, Arnold: 1965, The Importance of Lying, C. Thomas, Springfield, IL.
Lyons, William: 1980, Emotion, Cambridge University Press.
Mackensen, Lutz: 1983, Deutsches Wörterbuch, Süwest Verlag, München.
Martinich, A.: 1980, ‘Conversational Maxims and Some Philosophical Problems’, Philosophical Quarterly 30, No. 120, 215–228.
Meyers Enzyklopadisches Lexikon: 1975, Bibliographisches Institut, Mannheim, Vol. 15.
Müller, Gregor: 1962, Die Wahrhaftiigkeitspflicht und die Problematic der Lüge, Herder, Freiburg.
Observer: 1978, ‘Comments and Queries: Myths Concerning Man’, The Psychological Record 28, 639–642.
Observer: 1976, ‘Comments and Queries: What Meaning Means in Linguistics ’, The Psychological Record 26, 441–445.
Observer: 1981, ‘Comments and Queries: Words and their Misuse in Science and Psychology’, The Psychological Record 31, 599–605.
The Oxford English Dictionary: 1933, Clarendon Press, Oxford, Vol. 7, p. 251.
Oxford Latin Dictionary: 1982, P. Glare, ed., Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Philosophisches Wötterbuch: 1976. See under W. Brugger.
Philosophisches Wörterbuch: 1978, H. Schmidt and G. Schischkoff, A. Kröner, Stuttgart.
Popper, Karl: 1954, ‘Self-Reference and Meaning in Ordinary Language’, Mind 63, 162–169.
Ritter, J. and K. Gründer: 1980 “Lüge” Historisches Wörterbuch der Philosophie, Schwabe, Basil /Stuttgart, Vol. 5.
Rohatyn, Dennis: 1974, ‘Against The Logicians: Some Informed Polemics’, Dialectica 28, 87–102.
Rorty, Amélie, ed.: 1980, Explaining Emitions, University of California, Berkeley.
Ryle, Gilbert: 1949, Concept of Mind, Hutchinso n, London.
Ryle, Gilbert: 1960, ‘Formal and Informal Logic’, in Dilemmas, Cambridge University Press, pp. 111–129.
Schiller, F. C. S.: 1912, Formal Logic, Macmillan, London. (See also Logic for Use.)
Schiller, F. C. S.: 1932, ‘The Value of Formal Logic’, Mind 41, 53–71.
Schopenhauer, Arthur: 1969, The World as Will and Representation, Tr. E. Payne, 2 vols, Vol. I, Dover, New York, pp. 337–338.
Searle, John: 1969, Speech Acts, Cambridge University Press.
Shibles, Warren: 1974, Emition: The Method of Philosophical Therapy, The Language Press, Whitewater, WI.
Shibles, Warren: 1985, Lying: A Critical Analysis, The Language Press, Whitewater, WI.
Shibles, Warren: 1972, Philosophical Pictures, Kendall-Hunt, Dubuque, IA. (1973, Philosophische Bilder, Bouvier, Bonn.)
Shibles, Warren: 1973, ‘Review of K. T. Fann Symposium on John Austin’, Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 33, 443–444.
Shibles, Warren: 1969, Wittgenstein, Language and Philosophy, The Language Press, Whitewater, WI. (1973, Wittgenstein, Sprache und Philosopie, Bouvier, Bonn.)
Shirley, Edward: 1975, ‘The Impossibility of a Speech Act Theory of Meaning’, Philosophy and Rhetoric 8, 114–122.
Siegler, Frederick: 1966, ‘Lying’, American Philosophical Quarterly 3, No. 2, 128–136.
Simpson, D. P.: 1959:, Cassel''s New Dictionary, Funk and Wagnalls, New York, p. 369.
(S. R. Y.) Slovar Russkogo Yazika: 1958, Russian Language Institute, Moscow, Vol. II.
Solomon, Aobert: 1977, The Passions, Doubleday, New York.
Stroll, A.: 1954, ‘Is Everyday Language Inconsistent?’ Mind 63, 219–225.
Vox Diccionario General Ilustrado de la Lengua Español: B984, Biblograf, Barcelona.
Wahrig Deutsches Wörterbuch: 1984, Bertelsmann, München; and Mosaik Verlag, München.
Waismann, F.: 1955, The Principles of Linguistic Philosophy, St. Martin's Press, New York, pp. 294–295.
Webster's Third New International Dictionary: 1981, Merriam, MA.
Wittgenstein, Ludwig: 1958, Philosophical Investigations, 3rd ed., Macmillan, New York.
Wittgenstein, Ludwig: 1968, “Notes for Lectures on ‘Private Experience’ and ‘Sense Data’”, Philosophical Review 77, 271–320.
Wittgenstein, Ludwig: 1956, Remarks on the Foundations of Mathematics, Oxford: Blackwell.