Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Evidence of a maternal foraging cycle resembling that of otariid seals in a small phocid, the harbor seal

  • Published:
Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Summary

Lactation strategies in the two largest families of seals have been characterized as a phylogenetic dichotomy, with sea lions and fur seals (Otariidae) exhibiting foraging cycles and true seals (Phocidae) a strategy of fasting. We show that a lactating phocid, the harbor seal, Phoca vitulina, has a foraging cycle similar to that of otariids. Time-depth recorders attached to lactating harbor seal mothers revealed that 9 of 11 females began bouts of diving, averaging 12–40 m, by mid-lactation (12 days). During the remainder of lactation, females made an average of seven diving trips, lasting about 7 h. They returned to the rookery during the interval between successive bouts to nurse their pups. Diving was more frequent during daylight than at night and diving bouts increased in duration as lactation progressed. The diving behavior of females that had weaned their pups and previously collected data from stomach lavage, suggest that the bouts of diving represent successful foraging. We propose that the lactation strategy of the harbor seal is intermediate to that of the otariids and other phocids studied. The harbor seal has a foraging cycle like the otariids, but typically resembles other phocids in length of lactation, rate of mass gain in pups, and in milk fat content. As harbor seals are among the smallest phocids, and only slightly larger than most otariids, it seems likely that maternal size constrains the amount of stored energy harbor seal females can bring to the rookery, forcing them to start feeding during the lactation period.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Bartholomew GA (1970) A model for the evolution of pinniped polygyny. Evolution 24:546–559

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartholomew GA, Hoel PG (1953) Reproductive behavior of the Alaska fur seal Callorhinus ursinus. J Mammal 34:417–436.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bekoff M, Diamond J, Mitton JB (1981) Life-history patterns and sociality in canids: body size reproduction and behavior. Oecologia 50:386–390

    Google Scholar 

  • Bishop RH (1967) Reproduction, age determination and behaviour of the harbor seal, Phoca vitulina L. in the Gulf of Alaska. MSc Dissertation, University of Alaska

  • Blueweiss L, Fox H, Kudzma V, Nakashima D, Peters R, Sams S (1978) Relationships between body size and some life history patterns. Oecologia 37:257–272

    Google Scholar 

  • Bonner WN (1984) Lactation strategies in Pinnipeds: problems for a marine mammalian group. Symp Zool Soc London 51:253–272

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowen WD, Boness DJ, Oftedal OT (1987) Mass transfer from mother to pup and subsequent mass loss by the weaned pup in the hooded seal, Cystophora cristata. Can J Zool 65:1–8

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowen WD, Oftedal OT, Boness DJ (1989) Variation in the efficiency of mass transfer in harbour seals, Phoca vitulina, over the course of lactation. Abstr 8th Bienn Conf Biol Mar Mamm, Pacific Grove, Society for Marine Mammalogy, p. 8

  • Bowen WD, Oftedal OT, Boness DJ (1992) Mass and energy transfer during lactation in a small phocid, the harbor seal (Phoca vitulina). Physiol Zool 65:844–866

    Google Scholar 

  • Boyd IL, Arnbom T (1991) Diving behaviour in relation to water temperature in the southern elephant seal: foraging implications. Polar Biol 11:259–266

    Google Scholar 

  • Boyd IL, Croxall JP (1992) Diving behavior of lactating fur seals. Can J Zool 70:919–928

    Google Scholar 

  • Boyd IL, Lunn NJ, Barton T (1991) Time budgets and foraging characteristics of lactating Antarctic fur seals. J Anim Ecol 60:577–592

    Google Scholar 

  • Carrick R, Csordas SE, Ingham SE (1962) Studies on the southern elephant seal, Mirounga leonina (L.) IV. Breeding and development. CSIRO Wildl Res 7:161–197

    Google Scholar 

  • Clutton-Brock TH (1991) The evolution of parental care. Princeton University Press, Princeton

    Google Scholar 

  • Clutton-Brock TH, Harvey PH (1983) The functional significance of variation in body size among mammals. In: Eisenberg JF, Kleiman DG (eds) Advances in the study of mammalian behavior. American Society of Mammalogists, Pittsburgh, pp 632–663

    Google Scholar 

  • Costa DP (1987) Isotopic methods for quantifying material and energy intake of free-ranging marine mammals. In: Huntley AC, Costa DP, Worthy GAJ, Castellini MA (eds) Marine mammal energetics. Society for Marine Mammalogy, Lawrence, pp 43–66

    Google Scholar 

  • Costa DP (1991) Reproductive and foraging energetics of pinnipeds: implications for life-history patterns. In: Renouf D (ed) The behaviour of pinnipeds. Chapman and Hall, London, pp 300–344

    Google Scholar 

  • Costa DP, Le Boeuf BJ, Huntley AC, Ortiz CL (1986) The energetics of lactation in the northern elephant seal, Mirounga angustirostris. J Zool London 209:21–33

    Google Scholar 

  • Eliason JJ (1986) Mother-pup behavior in the harbor seal, Phoca vitulina richardsi. MA thesis, Department of Biological Sciences, Humboldt State University, Trinidad, CA

    Google Scholar 

  • Fedak MA, Anderson SS (1982) The energetics of lactation: accurate measurements from a large wild mammal, the grey seal (Halichoerus grypus). J Zool London 198:473–479

    Google Scholar 

  • Gentry RL, Kooyman GL (1986) Fur seals: maternal strategies on land and at sea. Princeton University Press, Princeton

    Google Scholar 

  • Gentry RL, Costa DP, Croxall JP, David JHM, Davis RW, Kooyman GL, Majluf P, McCann TS, Trillmich F (1986) Synthesis and conclusions. In: Gentry RL, Kooyman GL (eds) Fur seals: maternal strategies on land and at sea. Princeton University Press, Princeton, pp 220–264

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldsworthy SD (1992) Maternal care in three species of southern fur seal (Arctocephalus spp.). PhD Dissertation, Monash University

  • Heath CB, Ono KA, Boness DJ, Francis JM (1991) The influence of El Niño on female attendance patterns in the California sea lion. In: Trillmich F, Ono KA (eds) Pinnipeds and El Niño: responses to environmental stress. Springer, Heidelberg, pp 138–145

    Google Scholar 

  • Hindell MA, Slip DJ, Burton HR, Bryden MM (1992) Physiological implications of continuous, prolonged, and deep dives of the southern elephant seal (Mirounga leonina). Can J Zool 70:370–379

    Google Scholar 

  • Kovacs KM, Lavigne DM (1986) Maternal investment and neonatal growth in phocid seals. J Anim Ecol 55:1035–1051

    Google Scholar 

  • Le Boeuf BJ, Naito Y, Huntley AC, Asaga T (1989) Prolonged, continuous, deep diving by northern elephant seals. Can J Zool 67:2514–2519

    Google Scholar 

  • Le Boeuf BJ, Naito Y, Asaga T, Crocker D, Costa DP (1992) Swim speed in a female northern elephant seal: metabolic and foraging implications. Can J Zool 70:786–795

    Google Scholar 

  • Loudon ASI, Kay RNB (1984) Lactational constraints on a seasonally breeding mammal: the red deer. Symp Zool Soc London 51:233–252

    Google Scholar 

  • Loughlin TR, Bengston JL, Merrick RL (1987) Characteristics of feeding trips of female northern fur seals. Can J Zool 65:2079–2084

    Google Scholar 

  • McCann TS (1982) Aggressive and maternal activities of female southern elephant seals (Mirounga leonina). Anim Behav 30:268–276

    Google Scholar 

  • McCann TS, Fedak MA, Harwood J (1989) Parental investment in southern elephant seals, Mirounga leonina. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 25:81–87

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller SA (1988) Movement and activity patterns of harbor seals at the Point Reyes peninsula, California. Masters Dissertation, University of California, Berkeley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oftedal OT (1993) The adaptation of milk secretion to the constraints of fasting in bears, seals and baleen whales. J Dairy Sci 76:3234–3246

    Google Scholar 

  • Oftedal OT, Iverson SJ (1987) Hydrogen isotope methodology for measurement of milk intake and energetics of growth in suckling young. In: Huntley AC, Costa DP, Worthy GAJ, Castellini MA (eds) Marine mammal energetics. Society for Marine Mammalogy, Lawrence, pp 67–96

    Google Scholar 

  • Oftedal OT, Boness DJ, Tedman RA (1987) The behavior, physiology, and anatomy of lactation in the Pinnipedia. Curr Mammal 1:175–245

    Google Scholar 

  • Ono KA, Boness DJ, Oftedal OT (1987) The effect of a natural environmental disturbance on maternal investment and pup behavior in the California sea lion. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 21:109–118

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterson RS (1968) Social behavior of pinnipeds with particular reference to the northern fur seal. In Harrison RJ, Hubbard RC, Peterson RS, Rice CE, Schusterman RJ (eds) The behavior and physiology of pinnipeds. Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York, pp 3–53

    Google Scholar 

  • Reiter J, Stinson NL, Le Boeuf BJ (1978) Northern elephant seal development: the transition from weaning to nutritional independence. Behav Ecol Socibiol 3:337–367

    Google Scholar 

  • Renouf D, Lawson J, Gaborko L (1983) Attachment between harbour seal (Phoca vitulina) mothers and pups. J Zool London 199:179–187

    Google Scholar 

  • Robbins CT, Robbins BL (1979) Fetal and neonatal growth patterns and maternal reproductive effort in ungulates and subungulates. Am Nat 114:101–116

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith TG, Hammill MO, Taugbol G (1991) A review of the developmental, behavioural and physiological adaptations of the ringed seal, Phoca hispida, to life in the Arctic winter. Arctic 44:124–131

    Google Scholar 

  • Stirling I (1971) Studies on the behavior of the South Australian fur seal, Arctocephalus forsteri (Lesson). II. Adult females and pups. Aust J Zool 19:267–273

    Google Scholar 

  • Stirling I (1975) Factors affecting the evolution of social behaviour in the Pinnipedia. Rapp P-V Reun Cons Int Explor Mer 169:205–212

    Google Scholar 

  • Testa JW, Hill SEB, Siniff DB (1989) Diving behavior and maternal investment in Weddell seals (Leptonychotes weddelli). Mar Mamm Sci 5:399–406

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson PM, Fedak MA, McConnell BJ, Nicholas KS (1989) Seasonal and sex-related variation in the activity patterns of common seals (Phoca vitulina). J Appl Ecol 26:521–535

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson PM, Miller D, Cooper R, Hammond PS (1993) Changes in the distribution and activity of female harbour seals during the breeding season: implications for their lactation strategy and mating patterns. J Anim Ecol in press

  • Trillmich F (1986) Attendance behavior of Galapagos sea lions. In: Gentry RL, Kooyman GL (eds) Fur seals: maternal strategies on land and at sea. Princeton University Press, Princeton, pp 196–208

    Google Scholar 

  • Trivers RL (1972) Parental investment and sexual selection. In: Campbell B (ed) Sexual selection and the descent of man, 1871–1971. Aldine, Chicago, pp 136–179

    Google Scholar 

  • Venables UM, Venables LSV (1955) Observations on a breeding colony of the seal Phoca vitulina in Shetland. Proc Zool Soc London 125:521–532

    Google Scholar 

  • White RG, Luick JR (1984) Plasticity and constraints in the lactational strategy of reindeer and caribou. Symp Zool Soc London 51:215–232

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson S (1974) Mother-young interactions in the common seal, Phoca vitulina vitulina. Behaviour 48:23–36

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Zoological Research, National Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution, 20008, Washington, DC, USA

    D. J. Bonessl & O. T. Oftedall

  2. Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Marine Fish Division, Bedford Institute of Oceanography, B2Y 4A2, Dartmouth, N.S., Canada

    W. D. Bowen

Authors
  1. D. J. Bonessl
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. W. D. Bowen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. O. T. Oftedall
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Additional information

Correspondence to: D.J. Boness

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Bonessl, D.J., Bowen, W.D. & Oftedall, O.T. Evidence of a maternal foraging cycle resembling that of otariid seals in a small phocid, the harbor seal. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 34, 95–104 (1994). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00164180

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00164180

Key words

Search

Navigation