Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Weather compilations as a source of data for the reconstruction of european climate during the medieval period

  • Published:
Climatic Change Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Research into the climate of the Middle Ages has relied heavily upon data provided by compilations of references to weather and related phenomena extracted from a variety of historical texts and source documents. These compilations, produced from 1858 onwards, have generally neglected the essential need for source validation. While a considerable amount of reliable and useful information about medieval climate is to be found in documentary sources, it occurs together with material which is spurious, inaccurate, or whose reliability cannot be properly authenticated. Because they were, for the most part, scientists, unfamiliar with historical methodology and techniques of source analysis, the authors of the compilations were either unaware of the problematic character of their sources, or ignorant of the techniques developed by historians for dealing with them. The material included in the compilations must be regarded as suspect until its authenticity has been checked by validating individual sources. Unless this is done, a misleading picture of the climate of the Middle Ages may emerge from uncritical use of the compilations. In particular, the climate may appear to have been more extreme than authentic sources alone would suggest.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes and References

  1. Rerum Britannicarum Medii Aevi or Chronicles and Memorials of Great Britain and Ireland during the Middle Ages. (1858—1896) Published by the Authority of Her Majesty's Treasury, under the Direction of the Master of the Rolls.

  2. Pertz, Georg Heinrich et al. (eds.) (1826–1934) Monumenta Germaniae historica, inde ab anno Christi quingentesimo usque ad annum millesimum et quingentesimum, Scriptorum Vols, 1–32. impensis Bibliopolii, Hannoverae.

  3. Weikmn, Curt (1958) Quellentexte zur Witterungsgeschichte Europas von der Zeitwende bis zum Jahre 1850 Vol 1. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin, p. 35.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Arago, François (1854–62) Oeuvres Complètes. Publieés d'après son ordre sous la direction de M. J.-A. Barral. Paris, Leipzig. Vol. 8. (1858). p. 246.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Poole, Reginald L. (1934) Studies in chronology and History Collected and edited by Austin Lane Poole. Clarendon Press, Oxford. See Chapter I ‘The Beginning of the Year in the Middle Ages’.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Alexandre, Pierre (1976) Le climat au moyen âge en Belgique et dans les régions voisines (Rhenanie, Nord de la France). Centre belge d'histoire rurale. Publication no. 50, Liege, p. 10, note 14.

  7. Weikinn, op. cit. (1958) Quellentexte zur Witterungsgeschichte Europas von der Zeitwende bis zum Jahre 1850 Vol 1. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin, p. 34.

  8. Lowe, E. J. (1880) The Coming Drought: or, The Cycle of the Seasons, with a chronological history of all the droughts and frosts as yet found recorded from A.D. 134 to the present time, being Introductory to ‘Chronology of the Seasons’. Bemrose and Sons, London, p. 25.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Ibid. Lowe, E. J. (1880) The Coming Drought: or, The Cycle of the Seasons, with a chronological history of all the droughts and frosts as yet found recorded from A.D. 134 to the present time, being Introductory to ‘Chronology of the Seasons’. Bemrose and Sons, London, p. 30.

  10. Hennig, Dr. R. (1904) Katalog bemerkenswerter Witterungsereignisse von den ältesten Zeiten bis zum Jahre 1800. Abhandlungen des Königlich Preussischen Meteorologischen Instituts. Bd. II, No. 4. A. Asher and Co., Berlin, p. 1.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Poole, Reginald L. (1926) Chronicles and Annals A brief outline of their origin and growth. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 10 and 14–15.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Krüger, Karl Heinrich (1976) ‘Die Universalchroniken’ Typologie des Sources du Moyen Âge Occidental Directeur: L. Genicot. Fasc. 16. Editions Brepols, Turnhout (Belgium), p. 16f.

    Google Scholar 

  13. Harrison, Kenneth (1976) The Framework of Anglo-Saxon History to A.D. 900. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, London, New York, Melbourne, pp. 30–37.

    Google Scholar 

  14. Wattenbach, W. (1893–94) Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter, bis zur Mitte des dreizehnten Jahrhunderts. 2 Vols. Verlag von Wilhelm Hertz, Berlin, Vol. 1, pp. 138–39.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Ibid. Wattenbach, W. (1893–94) Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter, bis zur Mitte des dreizehnten Jahrhunderts. 2 Vols. Verlag von Wilhelm Hertz, Berlin, Vol. 1, pp. 138. For the development of annals see also Poole (1926).

  16. Nordal, Sigurdur (1957) The Historical Element in the Icelandic Family Sagas, The fifteenth W. P. Ker Memorial Lecture delivered in the University of Glasgow, 19th May, 1954, Jackson, Son and Company, Glasgow, p. 21.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Hallberg, Peter (1962) The Icelandic Saga. Translated with Introduction and Notes by Paul Schach. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, p. 1.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Tout, T. F. (1934) The Collected Papers of Thomas Frederick Tout, Vol. 3. Historical series, No. LXVI. Publication of the University of Manchester, No. CCXXI. Manchester University Press, Manchester, pp. 130–132.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Wattenbach, op. cit. (1893–94) Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter, bis zur Mitte des dreizehnten Jahrhunderts. 2 Vols. Verlag von Wilhelm Hertz, Berlin, Vol. 1, pp. 2.

  20. Ibid. Wattenbach, W. (1893–94) Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter, bis zur Mitte des dreizehnten Jahrhunderts. 2 Vols. Verlag von Wilhelm Hertz, Berlin, Vol. 1 p. 8.

  21. Borchardt, Frank L. (1971) German Antiquity in Renaissance Myth. The John Hopkins Press, Baltimore and London, p. 105.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Wattenbach, W. (1858) Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter, bis zur Mitte des dreizehnten Jahrhunderts, Verlag von Wilhelm Hertz, Berlin, p. 8.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Zahn, Joseph von (1865) Anonymi Leobienses Chronicon (Nach dem Originale herausgegeben von J. Zahn) Leuschner und Lubensky, Graz.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Bernheim, Ernst (1908) Lehrbuch der Historischen Methode und der Geschichtsphilosophie. Mit Nachweis der wichtigsten Quellen und Hilfsmittel zum Studium der Geschichte. Burt Franklin, New York. Vol. 2, pp. 414–15.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Ibid. Bernheim, Ernst (1908) Lehrbuch der Historischen Methode und der Geschichtsphilosophie. Mit Nachweis der wichtigsten Quellen und Hilfsmittel zum Studium der Geschichte. Burt Franklin, New York. Vol. 2, p. 415.

  26. Ibid. Bernheim, Ernst (1908) Lehrbuch der Historischen Methode und der Geschichtsphilosophie. Mit Nachweis der wichtigsten Quellen und Hilfsmittel zum Studium der Geschichte. Burt Franklin, New York. Vol. 2, p. 415.

  27. Using techniques of formal and contextual correspondence, P. Scheffer-Boichorst, for example, was able to reconstruct ‘Annales Patherbrunnenses’ from the still extant ‘Cologne Kings’ ‘Chronicle’ and ‘Annalista Saxo’. (Wattenbach, Wilhelm and Holtzmann, Robert (1967–71) Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter: Die Zeit der Sachsen und Salier. Edited by Franz-Josef Schmale, 3 Vols. Böhlau Verlag, Cologne, Graz. Vol. 2, pp. 584–85.)

  28. Thompson, James Westfall, with the collaboration of Bernhard J. Holm (1967) A History of Historical Writing Vol. 1: From the Earliest Times to the End of the Seventeenth Century. Peter Smith, Gloucester, Mass., p. 401.

  29. Wattenbach-Holtzmann op. cit. Wattenbach, W. (1858) Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter, bis zur Mitte des dreizehnten Jahrhunderts, Verlag von Wilhelm Hertz, Berlin, pp. 291–92.

  30. Hallberg, op. cit. Hallberg, Peter (1962) The Icelandic Saga. Translated with Introduction and Notes by Paul Schach. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, pp. 45–46.

  31. Bekker-Nielsen, Hans; Olsen, Thorkil Damsgaard; Widding, Ole (1965) Norrøn Fortaellekunst: Kapitler af den norsk-islandske middelalderlitteraturs historie. Akademisk Forlag, Copenhagen, p. 58.

    Google Scholar 

  32. Wattenbach-Holtzmann op. cit. Wattenbach, W. (1858) Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter, bis zur Mitte des dreizehnten Jahrhunderts, Verlag von Wilhelm Hertz, Berlin, Vol. 1 pp.55.

  33. Jørgensen, Ellen (1931) Historieforskning og Historieskrivning i Danmark indtil aar 1800. H. Hagerups Forlag, Copenhagen, p. 41.

    Google Scholar 

  34. Ibid. Jørgensen, Ellen (1931) Historieforskning og Historieskrivning i Danmark indtil aar 1800. H. Hagerups Forlag, Copenhagen, p. 40.

  35. Thompson, op. cit. James Westfall, with the collaboration of Bernhard J. Holm (1967) A History of Historical Writing Vol. 1: From the Earliest Times to the End of the Seventeenth Century. Peter Smith, Gloucester, Mass., pp. 464–65.

  36. Tout, op. cit. Tout, T. F. (1934) The Collected Papers of Thomas Frederick Tout, Vol. 3. Historical series, No. LXVI. Publication of the University of Manchester, No. CCXXI. Manchester University Press, Manchester, pp. 10–11.

  37. Thompson, op. cit.James Westfall, with the collaboration of Bernhard J. Holm (1967) A History of Historical Writing Vol. 1: From the Earliest Times to the End of the Seventeenth Century. Peter Smith, Gloucester, Mass., pp. 192

  38. Giles, J. A. (ed.) (1866) William of Malmesbury's Chronicle of the Kings of England. Bohns Antiquarian Library, Bell and Daldy, London, p. 4.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Bekker-Nielsen, op. cit. Olsen, Thorkil Damsgaard; Widding, Ole (1965) Norrøn Fortaellekunst: Kapitler af den norsk-islandske middelalderlitteraturs historie. Akademisk Forlag, Copenhagen pp. 62–63.

  40. Nordal, op. cit.Sigurdur (1957) The Historical Element in the Icelandic Family Sagas, The fifteenth W. P. Ker Memorial Lecture delivered in the University of Glasgow, 19th May, 1954, Jackson, Son and Company, Glasgow, p. 26.

  41. Laing, Samuel (tr.) (1968) Snorri Sturluson's Heimskringla: Part Two, Sagas of the Norse Kings. Revised with Introduction and Notes by Peter Foote. Everyman's Library. Dent, London; Dutton, New York, pp. 3–6.

    Google Scholar 

  42. Hennig, op. cit. Dr. R. (1904) Katalog bemerkenswerter Witterungsereignisse von den ältesten Zeiten bis zum Jahre 1800. Abhandlungen des Königlich Preussischen Meteorologischen Instituts. Bd. II, No. 4. A. Asher and Co., Berlin, p. 2.

  43. Norlind, Arnold (1914) ‘Einige Bemerkungen über das Klima der historischer Zeit: nebst einem Verzeichnis mittelalterlicher Witterungserscheinungen’. Lund Universitets Arsskrift, S.1, AFD 1, Bd. 10, Nr. 1, pp. 8–9.

  44. Britton, C. E. (1937) A Meteorological Chronology to A.D. 1450. Meteorological Office Geophysical Memoirs No. 70. Published by His Majesty's Stationary Office, London, p. 4.

    Google Scholar 

  45. Weikinn, op. cit. (1958) Quellentexte zur Witterungsgeschichte Europas von der Zeitwende bis zum Jahre 1850 Vol 1. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin, p.V

  46. Speerschneider, C. I. H. (1915) Om Isforholdene i Danske Farvande i aeldre og nyere tid, aarene 690-1860. Publikationer fra Det Danske Meteorologiske Institut, Meddelelser Nr. 2. Copenhagen, p. 15.

  47. Ibid. Speerschneider, C. I. H. (1915) Om Isforholdene i Danske Farvande i aeldre og nyere tid, aarene 690-1860. Publikationer fra Det Danske Meteorologiske Institut, Meddelelser Nr. 2. Copenhagen, p. 10.

  48. See below, p. 21.

  49. Weikinn, op. cit. (1958) Quellentexte zur Witterungsgeschichte Europas von der Zeitwende bis zum Jahre 1850 Vol 1. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 29–32

  50. Ibid. Weikinn, op. cit. (1958) Quellentexte zur Witterungsgeschichte Europas von der Zeitwende bis zum Jahre 1850 Vol 1. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 119–20 and p. 170.

  51. Easton, C. (1928) Les Hivers dans l'Europe Occidentale Étude statistique et historique sur leur temperature. E. J. Brill, Leydon, p. 71.

    Google Scholar 

  52. Lorenz, Ottokar (1886–87) Deutschlands geschichtsquellen im mittelalter seit der mitte des 13. Jahrhunderts. W. Hertz, Berlin, Vol. 1, p. 140.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Ibid. Lorenz, Ottokar (1886-87) Deutschlands geschichtsquellen im mittelalter seit der mitte des 13. Jahrhunderts. W. Hertz, Berlin, Vol. 1, p. 138.

  54. Easton, op. cit. C. (1928) Les Hivers dans l'Europe Occidentale Étude statistique et historique sur leur temperature. E. J. Brill, Leydon, p. 52.

  55. Hennig, op. cit. Dr. R. (1904) Katalog bemerkenswerter Witterungsereignisse von den ältesten Zeiten bis zum Jahre 1800. Abhandlungen des Königlich Preussischen Meteorologischen Instituts. Bd. II, No. 4. A. Asher and Co., Berlin, p. 14.

  56. Gottschalk, M. K. Elisabeth (1971) Stormvloeden en rivieroverstromingen in Nederland. Van Gorcum and Comp. N. V., Assen. I (de periode voor 1400), p. 58 and p. 277.

  57. Speerschneider, op. cit. Speerschneider, C. I. H. (1915) Om Isforholdene i Danske Farvande i aeldre og nyere tid, aarene 690-1860. Publikationer fra Det Danske Meteorologiske Institut, Meddelelser Nr. 2. Copenhagen, p. 61.

  58. Britton, op. cit. C. E. (1937) A Meteorological Chronology to A.D. 1450. Meteorological Office Geophysical Memoirs No. 70. Published by His Majesty's Stationary Office, London, pp. 50–51.

  59. Ibid. C. E. (1937) A Meteorological Chronology to A.D. 1450. Meteorological Office Geophysical Memoirs No. 70. Published by His Majesty's Stationary Office, London, p. 51.

  60. Tabulation from an unknown source, found by the Meteorological Office Library in 1964. Presumed to be the work of C. E. P. Brooks.

  61. Britton, op. cit. C. E. (1937) A Meteorological Chronology to A.D. 1450. Meteorological Office Geophysical Memoirs No. 70. Published by His Majesty's Stationary Office, London, p. 6.

  62. Hughes, Kathleen (1972) Early Christian Ireland: Introduction to the Sources. The Sources of History; Studies in the Uses of Historical Evidence. Hodder and Stoughton Limited, London. See pp. 115–118.

    Google Scholar 

  63. Easton, op. cit. C. (1928) Les Hivers dans l'Europe Occidentale Étude statistique et historique sur leur temperature. E. J. Brill, Leydon, pp. 36–42.

  64. Hennig, op. cit. Dr. R. (1904) Katalog bemerkenswerter Witterungsereignisse von den ältesten Zeiten bis zum Jahre 1800. Abhandlungen des Königlich Preussischen Meteorologischen Instituts. Bd. II, No. 4. A. Asher and Co., Berlin, p. 29.

  65. Gottschalk, op. cit. Gottschalk, M. K. Elisabeth (1971) Stormvloeden en rivieroverstromingen in Nederland. Van Gorcum and Comp. N. V., Assen. I (de periode voor 1400) p. 501.

  66. (1922-) Annales islandici posteriorum saeculorum Annálar 1400–1800 (edited by Jón Jóhannesson). Islenkza Bókmenntafélagi, Fèlagsprentsmiðjan. Reykjavik, Vol. 4, 1940, pp. 20–21.

  67. Vilmundarson, Thórhallur (1972) ‘Evaluation of Historical Sources on Sea Ice near Iceland’ in Sea Ice, Proceedings of an International Conference, edited by Thorbjörn Karlsson. National Research Council, Reykjavik, p. 163.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Hennig, op. cit. Dr. R. (1904) Katalog bemerkenswerter Witterungsereignisse von den ältesten Zeiten bis zum Jahre 1800. Abhandlungen des Königlich Preussischen Meteorologischen Instituts. Bd. II, No. 4. A. Asher and Co., Berlin, p. 14. See note 55.

  69. Lamb, H. H. (1966) The Changing Climate: Selected Papers. Methuen and Co. Ltd., London, p. 96. The standard south German curve for oak does, however, indicate that there was low growth during this period which might be due either to dryness or to cold. See Huber, B. and Giertz-Siebenlist, V. (1969) ‘Unsere tausendjährige Eichen-Jahrringchronologie durchschnittlich 57 (10–150) -fach belegt’. Sitz. Ber. Österr. Akad. Wiss. Mathm, Naturwiss. Ki. Abtig. 178, pp. 37–42.

    Google Scholar 

  70. E.g. von Rudioff, Hans (1967) Die Schwankungen und Pendelungen des Klimas in Europa seit dem Beginn der regelmässigen Instrumenten-Beobachtungen (1670). Friedr. Vieweg und Sohn, Brunswick, p. 86.

  71. Gottschalk, op. cit. Gottschalk, M. K. Elisabeth (1971) Stormvloeden en rivieroverstromingen in Nederland. Van Gorcum and Comp. N. V., Assen. I (de periode voor 1400) p. 271.

  72. Speerschneider, op. cit. Speerschneider, C. I. H. (1915) Om Isforholdene i Danske Farvande i aeldre og nyere tid, aarene 690-1860. Publikationer fra Det Danske Meteorologiske Institut, Meddelelser Nr. 2. Copenhagen, p. 9.

  73. For A.D. 1460, the source is Schouw, J. F. (1845) Naturskildringer, Copenhagen. For A.D. 1323, it is Suhm, M. (1793) Samlinger til den Danske historie, Copenhagen.

  74. Flohn, Hermann (1957) ‘Klimaschwankungen der letzten 1000 Jahre und ihre geophysikalischen Ursachen’ Deutscher Geographentag Würzburg. Tagungsbericht und wissenschaftliche Abhand- lungen. Franz Steiner Verlag, Wiesbaden, pp. 203–4.

    Google Scholar 

  75. Gottschalk, M. K. Elisabeth (1971–75) Stormvloeden en rivieroverstromingen in Nederland. Van Gorcum and Comp. N.V., Assen. 3 Vols.

  76. Alexandre, Pierre (1976) Le climat au moyen âge en Belgique et dans les régions voisines (Rhenanie, Nord de la France). Centre belge d'histoire rurale. Publication no. 50, Liege, p. 10, See Note 6.

  77. Graves, Edgar B. (1975) A Bibliography of English History to 1485 (based on ‘The Sources and Literature of English History from the earliest times to about 1485’ by Charles Gross). Clarendon Press, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  78. See Notes 14, Wattenbach, W. (1893–94) Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter, bis zur Mitte des dreizehnten Jahrhunderts. 2 Vols. Verlag von Wilhelm Hertz, Berlin, Vol. 1, pp. 138–39 22 and 27.

  79. Jørgensen, Ellen (1920) Annales Daniel Medii Aevi. Editionem Nouam Curauit, Udgivne af Selskabet for Udgivelse af Kilder til Dansk Historie, Copenhagen.

  80. Potthast, August (1896) Bibliotheca Historica Medii Aevi: Wegweiser durch die Geschichtswerke des europäischen Mittelalters bis 1500. W. Weber, Berlin. Also, Repertonum Fontium Historiae Medii Aevi primum ab Augusta Potthast digestum: i: Series collectionum, Rome 1962. ii: Fontes, A-B, 1967. iii: Fontes, C. 1970.

    Google Scholar 

  81. Lowe, Edward Joseph (1870) Natural Phenomena and Chronology of the Seasons; being an account of remarkable frosts, droughts, thunderstorms, gales, floods, earthquakes, etc., also diseases, cattle plagues, famines, etc. which have occurred in the British Isles since A.D. 220, chronologically arranged. Pt. 1. Bell and Daldy, London, p. 8.

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Climatic Research Unit, School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, NR4 7TJ, Norwich, England

    W. T. Bell & A. E. J. Ogilvie

Authors
  1. W. T. Bell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. A. E. J. Ogilvie
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Bell, W.T., Ogilvie, A.E.J. Weather compilations as a source of data for the reconstruction of european climate during the medieval period. Climatic Change 1, 331–348 (1978). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00135154

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00135154

Keywords

Search

Navigation