Abstract
The greatest diversity of butterflies and their host plants occurs in tropical regions. Some groups of butterflies in the tropics exhibit monophagous feeding in the larval stage, exploiting only one family of plants; others are polyphagous, feeding on plants in two or more distinct families. The two major types of tropical habitats for butterflies, namely primary and secondary forests, offer very different evolutionary opportunities for the exploitation of plants as larval food. Butterflies are faced with the major logistical problem, as are many other herbivorous insects, of depositing eggs on the correct plant for successful larval feeding. This paper, using the concepts of phenotype set and spatial patchiness of resources, attemps to make some predictions as to the optimal phenotypic systems for monophagous and polyphagous feeding in tropical butterflies, as related to the spatial patchiness of larval host plants in primary and secondary forests. In addition to the secondary compound chemistry of larval host plants as playing a role in the evolution of monophagy and polyphagy, the assumption is made that the spatial patchiness of host plants within and among different families also acts as a major factor in determining optimal ranges of phenotypes for different patterns of larval feeding. Owing to the high spatial patchiness of primary forest species of canopy trees and vines, it is predicted that butterflies exploiting these will be mostly polyphagous, whereas secondary forests having stable formations of fewer plant species and larger patches of these plants, will have mostly monophagous species. Forest understories may have both monophagous and polyphagous species, depending upon the layer of forest and the general type of understory (i.e. palmaceous or dicotyledonous). Field data on some groups of butterflies from tropical America support these predictions. Polyphagous butterflies are predicted to possess a genetic system of mixed morphs with a population being polymorphic as a whole; monophagous butterflies are predicted to have individuals all more or less similar genetically, and with a high amount of genic variation within individuals. Other forms of monophagy may evolve in species that are essentially monomorphic but with various mechanisms (physiological, developmental, behavioral) of phenotypic flexibility at the individual level. Although the environment is essentially coarse-grained for larvae since most are sedentary and polymorphism is an optimal adaptive strategy, the oviposition strategy of the adult must also be considered and some situations (i.e. forest canopy) have resources (host plants) distributed in a fine-grained fashion. Other forms of limited polyphagy may result from monomorphic genetic systems in which there is considerable phenotypic flexibility.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Bibliography
Barcant, M. (1972). Butterflies of Trinidad and Tobago. - London, Collins, 314 pp.
Benson, W.W., I.S. Brown Jr. and L.E. Gilbert (1975). Coevolution of plants and herbivores: passion flower butterflies. - Evolution 29, p. 659–680.
Black, G.A., Th. Dobzhansky and C. Pavan (1950). Some attempts to estimate species diversity and population density of trees in Amazonian forests. - Bot. Gaz. 111, p. 413–425.
Brattsten, L.B., C.F. Wilkinson and T. Eisner (1977). Herbivore-plant interactions: mixed-function oxidases and secondary plant substances. - Science 196, p. 1349–1352.
Breedlove, D.E. and P.R. Ehrlich (1972). Coevolution: patterns of legume predation by a lycaenid butterfly. - Oecologia 10, p. 99–104.
Brower, L.P. (1958). Larval foodplant specificity in butterflies of the Papilio glaucus group. - Lep. News 12, p. 103–114.
Brown, K.S., Jr. (1977). Centros de evolucao refugios quaternarius e conservacao de patriomonios geneticos na gegiao neotropical: padroes de diferenciacao em Ithomiinae (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae). - Acta Amazonica 7, p. 75–137.
Chew, F.S. (1977). Coevolution of pierid butterflies and their cruciferous foodplants. II. The distribution of eggs on potential foodplants. - Evolution 31, p. 568–579.
Childress, J.R. (1972). Behavioral ecology and fitness theory in a tropical hermit crab. - Ecology 53, p. 960–964.
Cody, M.L. (1974). Optimization in ecology. - Science 183, p. 1156–1164.
Connell, J.H. (1961). Effects of competition, predation by Thais lapillus, and other factors on natural populations of the barnacle Balanus balaboides. - Ecol. Monogr. 31, p. 61–104.
Connell, J.H. (1978). Diversity in tropical rain forests and coral reefs. - Science 199, p. 1302–1310.
Cook, L.M., E.W. Thomason and A.M. Young (1976). Population structure, dynamics, and dispersal of the tropical butterfly Heliconius charitonius. - J. Anim. Ecol. 45, p. 851–863.
Corner, E.J.H. (1966). The natural history of palms. - Berkeley, California, Univ. Calif. Press, 393 pp.
Dempster, E.R. (1955). Maintenance of genetic heterogeneity. - Cold Spr. Harb. Symp. quant. Biol. 20, p. 25–32.
Dethier, V.G. (1954). Evolution of feeding preferences in phytophagous insects. - Evolution 8, p. 33–54.
Dethier, V.G. (1959a). Food-plant distribution and density and larval dispersal as factors affecting insect populations. - Can. Ent. 91, p. 581–596.
Dethier, V.G. (1959b). Egg-laying habits of Lepidoptera in relation to available food. - Can. Ent. 91, p. 554–561.
Dolinger, P.M., P.R. Ehrlich, W.L. Fitch and D.E. Breedlove (1973). Alkaloid and predation patterns in Colorado lupine populations. - Oecologia 13, p. 191–204.
Ehrlich, P.R. and L.E. Gilbert (1973). Population structure and dynamics of the tropical butterfly Heliconius ethilla. - Biotropica 5, p. 69–82.
Ehrlich, P.R. and P.H. Raven (1965). Butterflies and plants: a study in Coevolution. - Evolution 18, p. 586–608.
Fedorov, A.A. (1966). The structure of the tropical rain forest and speciation in the humid tropics. - J. Ecol. 54, p. 1–10.
Fox, R.M. (1968). Ithomiidae (Lepidoptera: Nymphaloidea) of Central America. - Trans. Amer. ent. Soc. 94, p. 155–208.
Gadgil, M. and W.H. Bossert (1970). Life historical consequences of natural selection. - Amer. Nat. 104, p. 1–24.
Gilbert, L.E. (1969). Some aspects of the ecology and community structure of Ithomiid butterflies in Costa Rica. - Organ. Ttop. Studies report, San Jose, Costa Rica, 15 pp.
Gilbert, L.E. (1975). Ecological consequences of a coevolved mutualism between butterflies and plants. - In: Coevolution of animals and plants (L.E. Gilbert and P.H. Raven, eds.), pp. 210–240. - Austin, Univ. Texas Press.
Gilbert, L.E. and P.R. Ehrlich (1970). The affinities of the Ithomiidae and Satyridae (Nymphalida). - J. Lepid. Soc. 24, p. 297–300.
Gilbert, L.E. and M.C. Singer (1972). Dispersal and gene flow in a butterfly species. - Amer. Nat. 107, p. 58–72.
Gilbert, L.E. and P.R. Ehrlich (1970). The affinities of the Ithomiidae and Satyridae p. 365–398.
Gill, D.E. (1972). Intrinsic rates of increase, saturation densities and competitive ability. I. An experiment with Paramecium. - Amer. Nat. 106, p. 461–471.
Gillespie, J.H. (19740. Polymorphism in patchy environments. - Amer. Nat. 108, p. 145–151.
Hairston, N.G., F.E. Smith and L.B. Slobodkin (1960). Regulation in terrestrial ecosystems and the implied balance of nature. - Amer. Nat. 94, p. 421–425.
Hedrick, P.W., M.E. Ginevan and E.O. Ewing (1976). Genetic polymorphism in heterogeneous environments. - Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 7, p. 1–32.
Hutchinson, G.E. (1951). Copepodology for the ornithologist. - Ecology 32, p. 571–577.
Hutchinson, G.E. (1961). The paradox of the plankton. - Amer. Nat. 95, p. 137–145.
Janzen, D. H. (1967). Synchronization of sexual reproduction of trees within the dry season in Central America. - Evolution 21, p. 620–637.
Janzen, D.H. (1968). Host plants as islands in evolutionary and contemporary time. - Amer. Nat. 102, p. 592–595.
Janzen, D.H. (1970). Herbivores and the number of tree species in tropical forests. - Amer. Nat. 104, p. 501–528.
Kenoyer, L.A. (1929). General successional ecology of the lower tropical rainforest at Barro Colorado Island, Panama. - Ecology 10, p. 201–221.
Krieger, R.I., P.P. Feeny and C.F. Wilkinson (1971). Detoxication enzymes in the guts of caterpillars: an evolutionary answer to plant defenses. - Science 172, p. 579–581.
Lawlor, L.R. and J. Maynard Smith (1976). The coevolution and stability of competing species. - Amer. Nat. 110, p. 79–99.
Levene, H. (1958). Genetic equilibrium when more than one ecological niche is available. - Amer. Nat. 87, p. 331–33.
Levin, D.A. (1971). Plant phenolics: an ecological perspective. - Amer. Nat. 100, p. 157–181.
Levin, B.R., F.M. Stewart and L. Chao (1977). Resource-limited growth, competition, and predation: a model and experimental studies with bacteria and bacteriophage. - Amer. Nat. 111, p. 3–24.
Levins, R. (1962). The theory of fitness in a heterogeneous environment. I. The fitness set and adaptive function. - Amer. Nat. 96, p. 361–373.
Levins, R. (1965). Genetic consequences of natural selection. - In: Theoretical and mathematical biology (T.H. Waterman and H.J. Morowitz, eds.)., pp. 371–387. - New York, Blarsdell.
Levins, R. (1968a). Evolution in changing environments. - Princeton, Princeton Univ. Press, 120 pp.
Levins, R. (1968b). Toward an evolutionary theory of the niche. - In: Evolution and enviornment (E.T. Drake, ed.), pp. 325–340. - New Haven, Yale Univ. Press.
Levins, R. and R.H. MacArthur (1964). The maintenance of genetic polymorphism in a spatially heterogeneous environment: variation on a theme by Howard Levene. - Amer. Nat. 100, p. 585–589.
Levins, R. and R.H. MacArthur (1969). An hypothesis to explain the incidence of monophagy. - Ecology 50, p. 910–911.
Lewontin, R. C. (1965). Selection for colonizing ability. - In: The genetics of colonizing species (H.G. Baker and G.L. Stebbins, eds.) pp. 77–95. - New York, Academic Press.
Lewontin, R.C. (1974). The genetic basis of evolutionary change. - New York, Columbia Univ. Press, xiii + 346 pp.
MacArthur, R.H. (1969). Patterns of communities in the tropics. - J. Linn. Soc. Bot. 1, p. 19–30.
Maynard Smith, J. (1976). Evolution and the theory of games. - Amer. Scient. 64, p. 41–45.
Maynard Smith, J. (1978). Optimization theory in evolution. - Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 9, p. 31–56.
Muyshondt, A., A. Muyshondt Jr. and P. Muyshondt (1976). Notas sobre la biologia de Lepidopteros de El Salvador. 1. - Rev. Soc. Mex. Lepid. 11, p. 77–90.
Paine, R.T. (1966). Food web complexity and species diversity. - Amer. Nat. 100, p. 65–75.
Pires. J.M., Th. Dobzhansky and G.A. Black (1953). An estimate of the number of species of trees in an Amazonian forest community. - Bot. Gaz. 114, p. 467–477.
Pliske, T.E. (1975). Attraction of Lepidoptera to plants containing pyrrolizidine alkaloids. - Env. Entomol. 4, p. 455–473.
Richards, P. (1952). The tropical rain forest. - New York, Cambridge Univ. Press, 450 pp.
Root, R.B. and S.J. Chaplin (1976). The life-styles of tropical milkweed bugs, Oncopeltus (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae) utilizing the same hosts. - Ecology 57, p. 132–140.
Ross, G.N. (1964). Life history studies on Mexican butterflies. III. Nine Rhopalocera Papilionidae, Nymphalidae, Lycaenidae) from Ocotal Chicao, Veracruz. - J. Res. Lepid. 3, p. 207–229.
Roughgarden, J. (1976). Resource partitioning among competing species — a coevolutionary approach. - Theor. Pop. Biol. 9, p. 388–424.
Schoener, T.W. (1971). Theory of feeding strategies. - Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 2, p. 369–404.
Sharp, M.A., D.R. Parks and P.R. Ehrlich (1974). Plant resources and butterfly habitat selection. - Ecology 55, p. 870–875.
Slatkin, M. (1978). On the equilibration of fitnesses by natural selection. - Amer. Nat. 112, p. 845–859.
Slobodkin, L.B. and H .L. Sanders (1969). On the contribution of environmental predictability to species diversity. - In: Diversity and stability in ecological systems, pp. 82–95, (Brookhaven Symposia Biol., No. 22).
Strobeck, C. (1975). Selection in a fine-grained environment. - Amer. Nat. 109, p. 419–425.
Taylor, L.R. (1975). Longevity, fecundity and size: control of reproductive potential in a polymorphic migrant, Aphis fabae Scop. - J. Anim. Ecol. 43, p. 323–338.
Templeton, A.R. and E.D. Templeton (1974). Evolution in heterogeneous environments. - Amer. Nat. 108, p. 409–428.
Tyler, H.A. (1975). The swallowtail butterflies of North America. - Healdsburg, California, Naturegraph Pub. 192 pp.
Vaidya, V.G. (1969). Investigations on the role of visual stimuli in the egglaying and resting behaviour of Papilio demoleus L. (Papilionidae, Lepidoptera). - Anim. Behav. 17, p. 350–355.
Vane-Wright, R.I. (1972). Pre-courtship activity and a new scent organ in a butterfly. - Nature 239, p. 338–340.
Williamson, G.B. and C.E. Nelson (1972). Fitness set analysis of mimetic adaptive strategies. - Amer. Nat. 106, p. 525–537.
Wilson, E.O. (1968). The ergonomics of caste in the social insects. - Amer. Nat. 102, p. 41–66.
Young, A.M. (1972a). Mimetic associations in populations of tropical butterflies. 11. Mimetic interactions of Battus polydamus and Battus bellus. - Biotropica 4, p. 17–27.
Young, A.M. (1972b). The ecology and ethology of the tropical nymphaline butterfly, Victorina epaphus. I. Life cycle and natural history. - J. Lepid. Soc. 26, p. 155–170.
Young, A.M. (1972c). A contribution to the biology of Itaballia caesia (Lepidoptera; Pieridae) in a Costa Rican mountain ravine. - Wasmann J. Biol. 30, p. 43–70.
Young, A.M. (1972d). Notes on the life cycle and natural history of Dismorphia virgo (Pieridae: Dismorphiinae) in Costa Rica - Psyche 79, p. 165–178.
Young, A.M. (1972e). On the life cycle and natural history of Hymenitis nero (Lepidoptera: Ithomiidae) in Costa Rica. - Psyche 79, p. 284–294.
Young, A.M. (1972f). Community ecology of some tropical rain forest butterflies. - Amer. Midl. Nat. 87, p. 146–157.
Young, A.M. (1973a). The comparative ethology and ecology of several species of Morpho butterflies in Costa Rica. - Studies Neotrop. Fauna 8, p. 17–50.
Young, A.M. (1973b). Notes on the biology of the butterfly, Heliconius cydno (Lepidoptera: Hehconiinae) in Costa Rica. - Wasmann J. Biol. 31, p. 337–350.
Young, A.M. (1973c). Notes on the life cycle and natural history of Parides areas mylotes (Papilionidae) in a Costa Rican premontane wet forest. - Psyche 80, p. 1–21.
Young, A.M. (1973d). Notes on the biology of Phyciodes (Eresia) eutropia (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) in a Costa Rican mountain forest. - J. N.Y. ent. Soc. 81, p. 87–100.
Young, A.M. (1973e). The life cycle of Dircenna relata (Ithomiidae) in Costa Rica. - J. Lepid. Soc. 27, p. 258–267.
Young, A.M. (1974a). Notes on the biology of Pteronymia notilla (Ithomiidae) in a Costa Rican Mountain forest. - J. Lepid. Soc. 28, p. 257–268.
Young A.M. (1974b). The rearing of Morpho peleides (Morphinae) on peanuts. - J. Lepid. Soc. 28, p. 90–99.
Young A.M. (1974c). A natural historical account of Oleria zelica pagasa (Lepidoptera: Ithomiidae) in a Costa Rican mountain rain forest. - Studies on the Neotrop. Fauna 9, p. 123–140.
Young, A.M. (1974d). Further observations on the natural history of Philaethria dido (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae: Heliconiinae). - J. N.Y. ent. Soc. 82, p. 30–41.
Young, A.M. (1974e). Notes on the natural history of rare Adelpha butterfly (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) in Costa Rican high country._- J. N.Y. ent. Soc. 82, p. 235–244.
Young, A.M. (1974f). On the biology of Godyris zavaleta caesiopicta (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae: Ithomiinae). - Ent. News 85, p. 227–238.
Young, A.M. (1974g). On the biology of Hamadryas februa (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae: Nymphalinae) in Guanacaste, Costa Rica. - Z. angew. Ent. 75, p. 380–393.
Young, A.M. (1975). Observations on the life cycle of Heliconius hecale zuleika (Hewitson) in Costa Rica. - Pan-Pacif. Ent. 51, p. 76–85.
Young, A.M. (1976a). Notes on the life cycle of the butterfly Hypanartia kerfersteini (Nymphalidae: Nymphalinae: Nymphalini) in Costa Rica. - Brenesia 9, p. 61–69.
Young, A.M. (1976b). Studies on the biology of Heliconius charitonius L. (Nymphalidae: Heliconiinae) in Costa Rica. - Pan-Pacif. Ent. 52, p. 291–303.
Young, A.M. (1976c). Notes on the biology of Hypothyris euclea (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae: Ighomiinae) in Costa Rica. - Pan-Pacif. Ent. 53, p. 104–113.
Young, A.M. (1977a). Studies on the biology of Parides iphidamas (Papilionidae: Troidini) in Costa Rica. - J. Lepid. Soc. 31, p. 100–108.
Young, A.M. (1977b). Notes on the defoliation of coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) by the butterfly Opsiphanes quiteria quirinus (Lepidoptera: Brassolidae) in northeastern Coast Rica. - Deutsch. ent. 24, p. 253–365.
Young, A.M. (1977c). Notes on the biology of the butterfly Hypoleria cassotis (Bates) (Nymphalidae: Ithomiinae) in northeastern Costa Rica. - Brenesia 10: in press.
Young, A.M. (1978a). Spatial properties of niche separation among Eueides and Dryas butterflies (Lepidoptera: Nymhalidae: Heliconiinae) in Costa Rica. - J. N.Y. ent. Soc. 86, p. 2–19.
Young, A.M. (1978b). The biology of the butterfly Aeria eurimedea agna (Nymphalidae: Ithomfnae: Oleriini) in Costa Rica. - J. Kans. ent. Soc. 51, p. 1–10.
Young, A.M. (1978c). Studies on the interactions of Morpho peleides (Morphidae) with Leguminosae. - J. Lepid. Soc. 32: in press.
Young, A.M. and A. Muyshondt (1972). Biology of Morpho polyphemus in El Salvador. - J. N.Y. ent. Soc. 80, p. 18–42.
Young, A.M. and A. Muyshondt (1973). The biology of Morpho peleides in Central America. - Carib. J. Sci. 13, p. 1–49.
Young, A.M. and A. Muyshondt (1974). Ecological studies of the butterfly Victorina stelenes (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) in Costa Rica and El Salvador. - Studies Neotrop. Fauna 9, p. 155–176.
Young, A.M. and J.H. Thomason (1974). Demography of a confined population of the butterfly Morpho peleides during a tropical dry season. - Studies Neotrop. Fauna 9, p. 1–34.
Young, A.M. and A. Muyshondt (1975). Studies on the natural history of Central America butterflies in the family cluster Satyridae-Brassolidae-Morphidae (Lepidoptera: Nymphaloidea). III. Opsiphanes tamarindi and Opsiphanes cassina in Costa Rica and El Salvador. - Studies Neotrop. Fauna 10, p. 19–56.
Young, AM. and M.W. Moffett (1978). Studies on the population biology of the tropical butterfly Mechanitis isthmia in Costa Rica. - Amer. Midl. Nat. 98: in press.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Young, A.M. Evolutionary responses by butterflies to patchy spatial distributions of resources in tropical environments. Acta Biotheor 29, 37–64 (1980). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00045881
Received:
Revised:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00045881