Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Frost heaving of forest tree seedlings: a review

  • Review Paper
  • Published:
New Forests Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Soil frost heaving is the result of the formation of ice lenses in the soil caused by a segregation of the soil water. Ice lenses are growing from below and pushed upward. Seedlings heave when they are pushed out of the ground by the ice sheet formed at the surface of the soil. Frost heaving may greatly reduce growth and survival of forest tree seedlings particularly in regions where freezing and thawing are accompanied by high soil moisture. Resistance to frost heaving increases with size of seedling as the ability of a seedling to anchor itself increases. A few methods, such as fertilizing, choice of planting spots, sowing or planting at the proper time, shading, and use of mulches, appear to be effective in controlling frost heaving. Shade from natural plant cover can greatly reduce frost heaving.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Anderson, H. W. 1947. Soil freezing and thawing as related to some vegetation, climatic, and soil variables. J. For. 45: 94–101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrews, J. T. 1963. The analysis of frost heave data collected by B. H. J. Haywood from Schefferville, Labrador-Ungava. Can. Geogr. VII(4): 163–173.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arakawa, K. 1965. Theoretical studies of ice segregation in soil. J. Glaciol. 6: 255–260.

    Google Scholar 

  • Belotelkin, K. T. 1941. Soil-freezing and forest cover. Trans. Am. Geophys. Union: 173–175.

  • Beskow, G. 1935. Tjalbildningen och tjällyftningen med särskild hänsyn till vägar och järnvägar. Sver. Geol. Unders. 26: 242.

    Google Scholar 

  • Biswell, H. H., Schultz, A. M., Hedrick, D. W. and Mallory, J. I. 1953. Frost heaving of grass and brush seedlings on burned chamise brushlands in California. J. Range Manage. 6(3): 172–180.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bouyoucous, G. J. and McCool, M. M. 1928. The correct explanation for the heaving of soil, plants, and pavement. J. Am. Soc. Agron. 20: 480–491.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brink, V. C., Mackay, J. R., Freyman, S. and Pearce, D. G. 1967. Needle ice and seedling establishment in southwestern British Columbia. Can. J. Plant Sci. 47: 135–139.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caniard, L. 1977. Frost susceptibility of soils: Experimental method for classification of soils according to their degree of frost susceptibility. Soil Freezing Highway Construction: 50–56.

  • Cary, J. W. 1987. A new method for calculating frost heave including solute effects. Water Resour. Res. 23(8): 1620–1624.

    Google Scholar 

  • Casagrande, A. 1932. Discussion of “A new theory of frost heaving”. Proc. Highw. Res. Board II: 168–172.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chalmers, B. and Jackson, K. A. 1970. Experimental and theoretical studies of the mechanism of frost heaving. US Army CRREL Res. Rep. 199: 23 p.

  • Chamberlain, E. J. 1981. Frost susceptibility of soils: review of index test. US Army CRREL Monogr. 81-2: 121 p.

  • Cooper, W. E. 1940. Frost heaving and damage to black locust seedlings. Ecology 21: 501–504.

    Google Scholar 

  • Corte, A. E. 1962. Vertical migration of particles in front of a moving freezing plane. J. Geophys. Res. 67: 1085–1090.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cox, A. E. 1979. Frost damage to winter barley. Plant Pathol. 28: 25–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cox, A. E. and Mason, H. J. 1955. Frost damage to winter-sown barley. Plant Pathol. 4: 148.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, W. H. and Sowa, E. A. 1974. Container-grown seedlings show potential for afforestation of Pennsylvania coal-mine spoils. USDA Tree Planters' Notes 25(4): 6–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Day, R. J. and Cameron, D. A. 1968. The effect of frost heaving on different tube shapes for tubed seedlings. Toronto Univ., Faculty of Forestry, Glendon Hall, For. Res. Rep.: 5.

  • Decker, A. M. and Ronningen, T. S. 1957. Heaving in forage stands and in bare ground. Agron J. 49: 412–415.

    Google Scholar 

  • Derjaguin, B. V. and Churaev, N. V. 1986. Flow of nonfreezing water interlayers and frost heaving. Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 12: 57–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ducher, A. 1956. Is there a dividing line between non frost susceptible and frost susceptible soils. Stasse und Autobahn 3: 78–82.

    Google Scholar 

  • Engsås, J. 1972. The tendency of various types of plant pots to be lifted by frost heaving. Sver. Skogsvardsfoerb. Tidskr. 70(2): 123–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Everett, D. H. 1961. The thermodynamics of frost damage to porous solids. Trans. Faraday Soc. 57: 1541–1551.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fahey, B. D. 1973. An analysis of diurnal freeze-thaw and frost heave cycles in the Indian Peaks region of the Colorado Front Range. Arct. Alp. Res. 5: 269–281.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fahey, B. D. 1979. Frost heaving of soils at two locations in southern Ontario, Canada. Geoderma 22: 119–126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Förland, T. and Ratkje, S. K. 1980. On the theory of frost heave. Frost i jord 21: 45–48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fowler, A. C. 1989. Secondary frost heave in freezing soils. J. Appl. Math. 49(4): 991–1008.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fraser, J. K. 1959. Freeze-thaw frequencies and mechanical weathering in Canada. Arctic 12: 40–53.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garand, P. and Ladanyi, B. 1982. Frost susceptibility testing of a compacted glacial till, pp. 277–284. In: Proc. 3rd International Symposium on Ground Freezing, Hanover, New Hampshire.

  • Gill, P. A. 1977. Winter onion losses could be caused by frost heaving. Grower 22: 1171–1172.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilpin, R. R. 1980. A model for the prediction of ice lensing and frost heave in soils. Water Resour. Res. 16: 918–930.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilpin, R. R. 1982. A frost heave interface condition for use in numerical modelling, pp. 459–465. In: Proc. 4th Canadian Permafrost Conference, Calgary, Canada.

  • Gleason, K. J., Krantz, W. B., Caine, N., George, J. H. and Gunn, R. D. 1986. Geometrical aspects of sorted patterned ground in recurrently frozen soil. Science 232: 216–220.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gold, L. W. 1957. A possible force mechanism associated with the freezing of water in porous materials. Highw. Res. Board Bull. 168: 65–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gorle, D. 1980. Frost susceptibility of soils: Influence of the thermal variables and depth to the water table, pp. 772–783. In: proc. 2nd International Symposium on Ground Freezing, Trondheim, Norway.

  • Graber, R. E. 1971. Frost heaving ... seedling losses can be reduced. USDA Tree Planters' Notes 22(4): 24–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gradwell, M. W. 1960. Soil frost action in snow-tussock grassland. N. Z. J. Sci. 3(4): 580–590.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gray, J. T. 1966. Frost-heave studies at Knob Lake, 1964–65. McGill Sub-Arctic Res. Pap. 21: 108–128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guymon, G. L., Berg, R. L. and Hromadka II, T. V. 1983. Field tests of a frost-heave model, pp. 409–414. In: Proc. 4th International Conference on Permafrost, Fairbanks, Alaska.

  • Guymon, G. L., Harr, M. E., Berg, R. L. and Hromadka, T. V. 1981. A probalistic-deterministic analysis of one-dimensional ice segregation in a freezing soil column. Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 5: 127–140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guymon, G. L., Hromadka, T. V. and Berg, R. L. 1980. A one-dimensional frost heave model based upon simultaneous heat and water flux. Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 3: 253–262.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haasis, F. W. 1923. Frost heaving of western yellow pine seedlings. Ecology 4: 378–390.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haywood, B. H. J. 1961. Studies in frost-heave cycles at Schefferville. McGill Sub-Arctic Res. Pap. 11: 6–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heidmann, L. J. 1974a. An investigation into the causes and prevention of frost heaving of forest tree seedlings. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. of Ariz., Tucson 183 p.

  • Heidmann, L. J. 1974b. An inexpensive chest for conducting frost heaving experiments. USDA For. Serv. Res. Note 269: 4 p.

  • Heidmann, L. J. 1976. Frost heaving of tree seedlings: a literature review of causes and possible control. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-21: 10 p.

  • Heidmann, L. J. and Thorud, D. B. 1976. Controlling frost heaving of ponderosa pine seedlings in Arizona. USDA For. Serv. Res. Note RM-172: 12 p.

  • Hesselman, H. 1907. Studier öfver skogsvåxt å mossar. 1. Om trädplantor å utdikade flarkar. Sver. Skogsvardsfoeren. Tidskr. 5: 25–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holmes, R. M. and Robertson, G. W. 1960. Soil heaving in alfalfa plots in relation to soil and air temperature. Can. J. Soil Sci. 40: 212–218.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hopke, S. W. 1980. A model for frost heave including overburden, pp. 111–127. In: Conference on soil-water problems in cold regions, Calgary, Canada.

  • Horiguchi, K. 1978. Effects of the rate of heat removal on the rate of frost heaving, pp. 25–30. In: Proc. 1st International Symposium on Ground Freezing, Bochum, Germany.

  • Horiguchi, K. 1987. An osmotic model for soil freezing. Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 14: 13–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hrodmaka, T. V., Guymon, G. L. and Berg, R. L. 1982. Sensitivity of a frost heave model to the method of numerical simulation. Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 6: 1–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, K. A. and Chalmers, B. 1958. Freezing of liquids in porous media with special reference to frost heave in soils. J. Appl. Phys. 29: 1178–1181.

    Google Scholar 

  • James, P. A. 1971. The measurement of soil frost-heave in the field. Br. Geomorphol. Res. Group Tech. Bull. 8: 43 p.

  • Janssen, G. 1929. Effect of date of seeding of winter wheat on plant development and its relationship to winterhardiness. J. Am. Soc. Agron. 21: 444–466.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, F. H. and Peace, T. R. 1939. Experiments with frost heaving. Q. J. For. 38: 79–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, J. R. 1974. A spot seeding trial with southwestern white pine and blue spruce. USDA For. Serv. Res. Note RM-265: 6 p.

  • Jones, R. H. 1981. Developments and applications of frost susceptibility testing. Eng. Geol. 18: 269–280.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jumikis, A. R. 1956. The soil freezing experiment. Highw. Res. Board Bull. 35: 150–165.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaplar, C. W. 1965. Stone migration by freezing of soil. Science 149: 1520–1521.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaplar, C. W. 1970. Phenomenon of mechanism of frost heaving. Highw. Res. Rec. 304: 1–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaplar C. W. 1971. Experiments to simplify frost susceptibility testing of soils. US Army CRREL Tech. Rep. 223: 26 p.

  • Kay, B. D. and Scott, W. S. 1973. Reduction of frost heaving by tetraalkylammonium ions. Can. J. Soil Sci. 53: 421–427.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kienholz, R. 1940. Frost depth in forest and open in Connecticut. J. For. 38: 346–350.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kinbacher, E. J. 1956. Resistance of seedlings to frost heaving. Agron. J. 48: 166–170.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kinbacher, E. J. and Laude, H. M. 1955. Frost heaving of seedlings in the laboratory. Agron. J. 47: 415–418.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kinosita, S. 1978. Effects of initial water conditions on frost heaving characteristic, pp. 3–12. In: Proc. 1st International Symposium on Ground Freezing, Bochum, Germany.

  • Kohnke, H. and Werkhoven, C. H. 1963. Soil temperature and soil freezing as affected by an organic mulch. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc.: 13–17.

  • Konrad, J. M. and Morgenstern, N. R. 1982. Prediction of frost heave in the laboratory during transient freezing. Can. Geotech. J. 19: 250–259.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lamb C. A. 1936. Tensile strength, extensibility and other characteristics of wheat roots in relation to winter injury. Ohio Agric. Exp. Stn. Res. Bull. 568: 44 p.

  • Lambe, T. W. 1956. Modification of frost heaving of soils with additives. Highw. Res. Board Bull. 135: 1–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Larson, M. M. 1960. Frost heaving influences drought hardiness of ponderosa pine seedlings. USDA For. Serv. Res. Note 45: 2 p.

  • Larson, M. M. 1961. Seed size, germination dates, and survival relationships of ponderosa pine in the Southwest. USDA For. Serv. Res. Note 66: 4 p.

  • Ledgard, N. J. 1976. Research into the direct seeding of woody plants in high country revegetation. N. Z. J. For. 21(2): 253–264.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ledgard, N. J. 1978. Direct seeding of trees and shrubs, pp. 153–160. In: Proc. 16th FRI Symposium: Revegetation in the rehabilitation of mountains lands, New Zealand.

  • Ledgard, N. J. 1979. First-year losses of Pinus mugo seed and seedlings on an exposed high-country subsoil. N. Z. J. For. 24(1): 90–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Linell, K. A. and Kaplar, C. W. 1959. The factor of soil and material type in frost action. Highw. Res. Board Bull. 225: 81–128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loch, J. P. G. 1977. Laboratory frost heave tests of Norwegian silty soils. Norw. Road Res. Lab. Intern. Rap. 746: 43 p.

  • Loch, J. P. G. 1979. Suggestions for an improved standard laboratory test for frost heave susceptibility of soils. Frost i Jord 20: 33–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loch, J. P. 1981. State-of-the-art-report: Frost action in soils. Eng. Geol. 18: 213–224.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Low, A. J. 1969. Forest use of tubed planting stock. For. Comm. For. Res. Rep.: 60–62.

  • Low, A. J. 1975. Production and use of tubed seedlings. For. Comm. Bull. 53: 46 p.

  • Lundin, L. C. 1989. Water and heat flows in frozen soils: Basic theory and operational modeling. Acta Univ. Ups., Doctoral Diss. 186: 50 p.

  • MacGillivray, H. G. and Hartley, H. A. 1973. Influence of lath plotseparators on frost heaving and growth of seedlings. Tree Planters' Notes 24(4): 6 p.

  • MacKay, J. R., Ostrick, J., Lewis, C. P. and Mackay, D. K. 1979. Frost heave at ground temperatures below 0°C, Inuvik, N.T. Geol. Surv. Can. Pap. 79–1A: 403–406.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mackinney, A. L. 1929. Effect of forest litter on soil temperature and soil freezing in autumn and winter. Ecology 10: 312–321.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, R. T. and Wissa, A. E. Z. 1973. Frost susceptibility of Massachusetts soils: evaluation of rapid frost susceptibility tests. Mass. Inst. Technol. Soils publication 320: 119 p.

  • Matthews, B. 1962. Frost-heave cycles at Schefferville, October 1960–Juni 1961 with a critical examination of methods used to determine them. McGill Sub-Arctic Res. Pap. 12: 112–125.

    Google Scholar 

  • Matthews, B. 1967. Automatic measurement of frost-heave: results from Malham and Rodley (Yorkshire). Geoderma 1: 107–115.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCool, M. M. and Bouyoucous, G. J. 1929. Causes and effects of soil heaving. Mich. Agric. Exp. Stn. Spec. Bull. 192: 11 p.

  • Miller, R. D. 1972. Freezing and heaving of saturated and unsaturated soils. Highw. Res. Rec. 393: 1–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, R. D. 1978. Frost heaving in non-colloidal soils, pp. 708–713. In: Proc. 3rd International Permafrost Conference, Edmonton, Canada.

  • Miller, R. D. 1980. Freezing phenomena in soils, pp. 254–299. In Hill, D. (Ed) Applications of Soil Physics. Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, D. L. and Kay, W. C. 1972. Reforestation with tree seedlings grown in extruded peat cylinders. Res. Counc. Alberta: 560–569.

  • Mullin, R. E. 1965. Effects of mulches on nursery seedbeds of White spruce. For. Chron. 4(4): 454–465.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newman, J. E. 1967. Total soil heaving motions at the Southern Indiana Forage Farm during the 1965–66 winter season. Purdue Univ. Agric. Exp. Stn. Res. Prog. Rep. 297: 4 p.

  • Noble, P. L. and Alexander, R. R. 1977. Environmental factors affecting natural regeneration of Engelmann Spruce in the Central Rocky Mountains. For. Sci. 23: 420–429.

    Google Scholar 

  • O'Neill, K. 1983. The physics of mathematical frost heave models: a review. Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 6: 275–291.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O'Neill, K. and Miller, R. D. 1985. Exploration of a rigid ice model of frost heave. Water Resour. Res. 21: 281–296.

    Google Scholar 

  • Obermeier, S. F. 1974. Frost heave susceptibility research, pp 257–266. In: OECD Symposium Frost Action on Roads, Oslo.

  • Örlander, G. 1987. Effects of site preparation on the development of planted seedlings in northern Sweden, pp. 7. In: IUFRO SI: 05-12 Symposium, Lapland, Finland.

  • Örlander, G. and Adelsköld, G. 1989. Val av planteringspunkt. Skogsarbeten: 7 p.

  • Örlander, G. and Gemmel, P. 1989. Markberedning. Sver. Skogsvarsfoerb. Tidskr., 3: 53 p.

  • Penner, E. 1957. The nature of frost action, pp. 234–243. In: Proc. Convention of the Canadian Good Road Association, Canada.

  • Penner, E. 1958. Some basic aspects of frost heaving in soils, pp. 283–285. In: Proc 39th Convention of the Canadian Good Roads Association, Canada.

  • Penner, E. 1959. The mechanism of frost heaving in soils. Highw. Res. Board Bull. 225: 1–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Penner, E. 1961. Alternate freezing and thawing not a requirement for frost heaving in soils. Can. J. Soil Sci. 41: 160–163.

    Google Scholar 

  • Penner, E. 1962. Ground freezing and frost heaving. Can. Build. Dig. 26: 4 p.

  • Penner, E. 1970. Frost heaving forces in Leda Clay. Can. Geotech. J. 7: 8–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Penner, E. 1972. Influence of freezing rate on frost heaving. Highw. Res. Rec. 393: 56–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Penner, E. 1977. Fundamental aspects of frost action, pp. 17–28. In: Proc. International Symposium on Frost Action in Soils, Luleå, Sweden.

  • Penner, E. and Robillard, P. 1959. The use of waste sulphite liquor to reduce frost heaving in soils. Trans. Eng. Inst. Can. 3: 107–109.

    Google Scholar 

  • Penner, E. and Ueda, T. 1978. A soil frost susceptibility test and a basis for interpreting heaving rates, pp. 721–727. In: Proc. 3rd International Conference on Permafrost, Edmonton, Canada.

  • Perfect, E., Miller, R. D. and Burton, B. (1987). Root morphology and vigor effects on winter heaving of established alfalfa. Agron. J. 79: 1061–1067.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, J. A. 1963. Bedstead II. Preliminary report on an instrument designed for the study of frost-heave in the sub-arctic. McGill Sub-Arctic Res. Pap. 15: 129–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pikul, J. L., Boersma, L. and Rickman, R. W. 1989. Temperature and water profiles during diurnal soil freezing and thawing: field measurements and simulation. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. 53: 3–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pohtila, E. 1977. Reforestation of ploughed sites in Finnish Lapland. Metsantutkimuslaitoksen Julk. 91(4): 1–98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Portz, H. L. 1967. Frost heaving of soil and plants: (1) incidence of frost heaving of forage plants and meteorological relationships. Agron. J. 59: 341–344.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rietveld, W. J. and Heidmann, L. J. 1976. Direct seeding Ponderosa Pine on recent burns in Arizona. USDA For. Ser. Res. Note RM-312: 8 p.

  • Russell, R. J. 1943. Freeze-and-thaw frequencies in the United States. Trans. Am. Geophys. Union: 125–133.

  • Russell, W. E., Olsen, F. J. and Jones, J. H. 1978. Frost heaving in alfalfa establishment on soils with different drainage characteristics. Agron. J. 70: 869–872.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saetersdal, R. 1981. Heaving conditions by freezing of soils. Eng. Geol. 18: 291–305.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schramm, J. R. 1958. The mechanism of frost heaving of tree seedlings. Am. Philos. Soc. Proc. 102(4): 333–350.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schubert, G. H. 1970. Ponderosa pine regeneration problems in the southwest, pp. 1–4. In: Regeneration Ponderosa Pine Symposium, Corvallis, Oregon.

  • ShawIII, C. G., Sidle, R. C. and Harris, A. S. 1987. Evaluation of planting sites common to a southeast Alaska clear-cut. III. Effects of microsite type on ectomycorrhizal inoculation on growth and survival of Sitka spruce seedlings. Can. J. For. Res. 17: 334–339.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shimada, T., Genma, T., Furuya, S. and Kondo, Y. 1982. Frost heaving injury of alfalfa. J. Jpn. Soc. Grassl. Sci. 28(2): 147–153.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smagula, J. M. and Goltz, S. M. 1988. Mulches affect frost heaving, survival and growth of lowbush blueberry seedlings. Hortscience 23(3): 741.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, D. J. 1987. Frost-heave activity in the Mount Rae area, Canadian Rocky Mountains. Arct. Alp Res. 19: 155–166.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, M. W. and Patterson, D. E. 1989. Detailed observations on the nature of frost heaving at a field scale. Can. Geotech. J. 26: 306–312.

    Google Scholar 

  • Söderstöm, V. 1973. Några planteringsförsök med tall och gran på friska och fuktiga marker. Sver. Skogsvardsfoerb. Tidskr. 71: 457–491.

    Google Scholar 

  • Söderström, V. 1977. Problem och metoder i skogsföryngringsarbetet. Kungl. Skogs- o. Lantbr.-akad. Tidskr. 116: 43–58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sutton, R. F. 1968. Ecology of young white spruce (Picea glauca [Moench] Voss). Ph.D. Thesis, Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N.Y. 500 p.

  • Sutton, R. F. 1969. Form and development of conifer root systems. Commonwealth For. Bur., Oxford, Engl., Tech. commun. 7: 131 p.

  • Sutton, R. F. 1991. Soil properties and root development in forest trees: a review. For. Can., Ont. Region, Sault Ste-Marie, Ont. Inf. Rep. O-X-413, 42 p.

  • Sutton, R. F. 1992. White spruce (Picea glauca [Moench] Voss): stagnating boreal old-field plantations unresponsive to fertilization and weed control. For. Chron. 68: 249–258.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taber, S. 1929. Frost heaving. J. Geol. 37: 428–461.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taber, S. 1930. The mechanics of frost heaving. J. Geol. 38: 303–317.

    Google Scholar 

  • Takagi, S. 1965. Principles of frost heaving. US Army CRREL Res. Rep. 140: 24 p.

  • Takagi, S. 1980. The adsorption force theory of frost heaving. Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 3: 57–81.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Takashi, T., Yamamoto, H., Ohrai, T. and Masuda, M. 1978. Effect of penetration rate of freezing and confining stress on the frost heave ratio of soil, pp. 736–743. In: Proc. 3rd International Conference on Permafrost, Edmonton, Canada.

  • Van, Keuren, R. W. 1988. Frost heave of alfalfa as affected by harvest schedule. Agron. J. 80: 626–631.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker, N. R. and Johnson, H. J. 1974. Field performance of pine and spruce reared in the BC/CFS styroblock—Alberta. Can. For. Serv. North. For. Res. Cent. Inf. Rep. Nor-X-84: 12 p.

  • Wibeck, E. 1920. Om olika skogsodlingsmetoders förhållande till uppfrysningsfaran i Norrland. Sver. Skogsvardsfoerb. Tidskr. 329–347.

  • Woods, F. W. Hay, R. L. and Irwin, G. H. 1978. Tree planting on strip mines—a test of minisite preparation. Tenn. Farm Home Sci. 14–15.

  • Woods, F. W., Hay, R. L. and Irwin, G. H. 1979. Summer planting on strip mines successful. USDA Tree Planters' Notes: 22–23.

  • Wright, J. W. 1944. Genotypic variation in white ash. J. For. 42: 489–495.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wycoff, H. B. 1958. Experimental treatment of sawdust with anhydrous ammonia. USDA Tree Planters' Notes 31: 15–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Xiaobai, C. and Yaqing, W. 1988. Frost heave prediction for clayey soils. Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 15: 233–238.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yong, R. N. and Osler, J. C. 1971. Heave and heaving pressures in frozen soils. Can. Geotech. J. 8: 272–282.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zalasky, H. 1980. Influence of splash cones on outplanted conifer seedlings. Bi-month. Res. Notes Can. For. Serv.: 18–19.

  • Zoller, J. H. 1973. Frost heave and the rapid frost heave test. Public Roads 37: 211–220.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Forestry, Department of Silviculture, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, S-901 83, Umeå, Sweden

    France Goulet

Authors
  1. France Goulet
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Goulet, F. Frost heaving of forest tree seedlings: a review. New Forest 9, 67–94 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00028927

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00028927

Key words

Search

Navigation