Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Loons in freshwater lakes

  • Published:
Hydrobiologia Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Loons (Gaviidae) divide their annual cycle between salt and freshwater habitat, the latter being the site of breeding activites. Territorial requirements include sufficient size to permit runs of more than 100 m for take-off and landings; food for chicks and water clarity sufficient to permit foraging for it at depths generally ≤ 5 m; protected nest sites, preferably islands; and shallow vegetated nurseries. Gavia stellata, the smallest and most primitive species, is the exception, and breeds on small tarns, requires take-offs of < 50 m, and flies to coastal or riverine waters for all food. Freshwater dependence has increased during loon evolution, shaped their vocalizations, and mandated annual migrations. Hazards include eutrophication, human disturbance, water level fluctuations, toxic pollutants, acid precipation and seasonal unreliability. Loons have long been considered a major indicator of wilderness quality, but their potential as useful monitors of freshwater habitat depends on availability of baseline data, which currently varies among species and geographical regions.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alexander, L., 1985. Trouble with loons. Living Bird Quart. 4: 10–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alvo, R., 1981. Marsh nesting of Common Loons (Gavia immer). Can. Field Nat. 95: 357.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alvo, R., D. Hussell & M. Berrill., 1988. The breeding success of Common Loons (Gavia immer) in relation to alkalinity and other lake characteristics in Ontario. Can. J. Zool. 66: 746–752.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Ornithologists' Union. 1985. Thirty-fifth supplement to the American Ornithologists' Union Check-list of North American Birds. Auk 102: 680–686.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andersson, Å, P. Lindberg, S. G. Nilsson & Å. Pettersson. 1980. Storlommens Gavia arctica hachningsframgång i svenska sjoar. Vår Fågelvarld 39: 85–94.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barklow, W. E., 1979. Graded frequency variations of the tremolo call of the Common Loon (Gavia immer). Condor 81: 53–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barr, J. F., 1973. Feeding biology of the Common Loon (Gavia immer) in oligotrophic lakes of the Canadian shield. PhD diss., University of Guelph, Ontario, 204 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barr, J. F., 1986. Population dynamics of the Common Loon (Gavia immer) associated with mercury contaminated waters in northwestern Ontario. Can. Wildl. Serv. Occas. Paper No. 56, 25 pp.

  • Barr, J. F., Growth and feeding development of captive Common Loons. Hydrobiologia/Dev. Hydrobiol (in press).

  • Bergman, R. D. & D. V. Derksen, 1977. Observations on Arctic and Red-throated Loons at Storkersen Point, Alaska. Arctic 30: 41–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Binford, L. C. & J. V. Remsen, 1974. Identification of the Yellow-billed Loon (Gavia adamsii). Western Birds 5: 111–126.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blair, R., 1990. Water quality and the summer distribution of Common Loons in New York. Kingbird 40: 10–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bligh, E. G., 1970. Mercury and its contamination of freshwater fish. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. M.S. Rep. Ser. No. 1088. Freshwater Inst., Winnipeg, Man.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blodlget, B. G., 1990. 1990 Common Loon nesting summary for Massachusetts. Ann. Rep. MA Division of Fisheries & Wildlife, Westboro, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burn, D. M. & J. R. Mather, 1974. The White-billed Diver in Britain. Brit Birds 67: 257–282.

    Google Scholar 

  • Christoff, M., 1979. A study of the early chick rearing period of the Common Loon (Gavia immer). Unpubl. report, SUNY College of Environmental Science and Foresty, Syracuse, N.Y., 34 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, R. A., 1975. Common Loons nest again in Massachusetts. Bird News of Western Mass. 15: 65–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Compeau, G. C. & R. Bartha, 1985. Sulfate-reducing bacteria: principle methylators of mercury in anoxic estuarine sediments. Appl. envir. Microbiol. 51: 498–502.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cramp, S. & K. E. L. Simmons (eds), 1977. Handbook of the birds of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa. The birds of the Western Palearctic. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press, New York, 42–65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, R. A., 1972. A comparative study of the use of habitat by Arctic Loons and Red-throated Loons. PhD diss. Univ. Western Ontario, London, 289 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Derksen, D. V., Rothe T. C. & W. D. Eldridge, 1981. Use of wetland habitat by birds in the National Petroleum Reserves-Alaska. Resource Publ. 141. Washington, D.C., USFWS.

  • Dodgson, C. L., 1866. Alice in wonderland. MacMillan & Co., London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunker, H., 1974. Habitat selection and territory size of the Black-throated Diver Gavia arctica (L.), in south Norway. Norw. J. Zool. 22: 15–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunker, H. & K. Elgmork, 1973. Nesting of the Blackthroated Diver, Gavia arctica (L.) in small bodies of water. Norw. J. Zool. 21: 33–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eriksson, M., 1985. Prey detectability for fish-eating birds in relation to fish density and water transparency. Ornis Scand. 16: 1–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eriksson, M., 1987. The production of young in Blackthroated Diver, Gavia arctica, in southwest Sweden. Far Fågelvårld. 46: 172–186.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fair, J. S., 1979. Water level fluctuations and Common Loon nest failure. In S. A. Sutcliffe (ed.), Proceed. 2nd N.A. Conf. Common Loon Res. and Manage. National Audubon Society, (N.Y.), 57–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fair, J. S., 1990. New Hampshire Common Loon Gavia immer recovery program. Ann. Perf. Rep. Loon Preservation Committee, Meredith, (N.H.).

    Google Scholar 

  • Fimreite, N., 1974. Mercury contamination of aquatic birds in northwestern Ontario. J. Wildl. Manage. 387: 120–131.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fimreite, N. & Karstad, 1971. Effects of dietary methylmercury on Red-tailed Hawks. J. Wildl. Manage. 35: 293–300.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fimreite, N. & L. M. Reynolds, 1973. Mercury contamination of fish in northwestern Ontario. J. Wildl. Manage. 37: 62–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flick, W. A., 1983. Observations on loons as predators on Brook Trout and as possible transmitters of infectious pancreatic necrosis (IPN). N.A.J. Fish Manage. 3: 95–96.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fox, D. A. & A. J. Sillman, 1979. Heavy metals affect rod, but not cone, photoreceptors. Science 206: 78–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frank, R., H. Lumsden, J. F. Barr & H. E. Braun, 1983. Residues of organochlorine and mercury in eggs and tissues of healthy and emaciated Common Loons (Gavia immer), Ontario, Canada, 1968–1980. Arch. envir. Contam. Toxicol. 12: 641–654.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gomersall, C. H., 1986. Breeding performance of the Redthroated Diver Gavia stellata in Shetland. Holarct. Ecol. 9: 277–284.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall, C. S. & C. C. Rimmer, 1990. The 1990 breeding status of Common Loons in Vermont. Ann Rep VINS, Woodstock, (Vermont).

    Google Scholar 

  • Heimberger, M., D. Euler & J. Barr, 1983. The impact of cottage development on Common Loon reproductive success in central Ontario. Wilson Bull. 95: 431–439.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hobson, K. A., 1990. Stable isotope analysis of Marbled Murrelets: evidence for freshwater feeding and determination of trophic level. Condor 92: 897–903.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hope, P. & J. Kerekes, 1986. Occurrence of fish-eating birds on lakes (clear and colored) in Kejimkujik National Park. In J. Kerekes (ed.), Kejimkujik Calibrated Catchments Program Workshop Proc. LRTAP Liason Office, AES Downsview, Canada: 127–132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnsgard, P. A., 1987. Diving birds of North America. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kerekes, J., 1990. Possible correlation of summer common loon (Gavia immer) population with the trophic state of a water body. Verh. int. Ver. Limnol. 24: 349–353.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kessell, B., 1990. Birds of the Seward Peninsula. University of Alaska Press, Fairbanks, 330 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lehtonen, L., 1970. Zur biologic des Prachttauchers, Gavia a. arctica (L.). Ann. Zool. Fennici 7: 25–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lindberg, P., 1968. Något om storlommens (Gavia arctica L.) och smålommens (Gavia stellata L.) ekologi. Sårtryck ur Zoologisk Revy 30: 83–88.

    Google Scholar 

  • Locke, L. M., S. M. Kerr & D. Zoromski, 1982. Lead poisoning in Common Loons (Gavia immer). Avian Diseases 26: 392–396.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lokki, J. & K. Eklof, 1981. Breeding success of the Red-throated Diver (Gavia stellata) in southern Finland. Ann. Zool. Fennici 21: 417–419.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lowther, J. K. & D. M. Wood, 1964. Specificity of a black fly, Simulium euryadminiculum Davies, toward its host, the Common Loon. Can. Ent. 96: 911–913.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marten, K. & P. Marler, 1977. Sound transmission and its significance for animal vocalization. I. Temperate habitats. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 2: 271–290.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marten, K., D. Quine & P. Marler, 1977. Sound transmission and its significance for animal vocalization. II. Tropical forest habitats. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 2: 291–302.

    Google Scholar 

  • McIntyre, J. W., 1975. Biology and behavior of the Common Loon (Gavia immer) with reference to its adaptability in a man-altered environment. PhD diss., University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, 230 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • McIntyre, J. W., 1977. The Common Loon. Part II. Identification of potential predators on Common Loon nests. Loon 49: 96–99.

    Google Scholar 

  • McIntyre, J. W., 1978. Wintering behavior of Common Loons. Auk 95: 396–403.

    Google Scholar 

  • McIntyre, J. W., 1983. Nurseries: A consideration of habitat requirements during the early chick-rearing period in Common Loons. J. Field Ornithol. 54: 247–253.

    Google Scholar 

  • McIntyre, J. W., 1988a. The Common Loon: Spririt of northern lakes. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 230 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • McIntyre, J. W., 1988b. The rise and fall of a loon lake. In: P. I. V. Strong (ed.), Papers 1987 Conf. Loon Res. and Manage. North American Loon Fund, Meredith, (N.H.), 17–18 (abst.)

    Google Scholar 

  • McIntyre, J. W., 1988c. Water level fluctuation and Common Loon productivity on the Stillwater Reservoir. Report for Stillwater Ass. Albany, N.Y., 13 pp.

  • McIntyre, J. W., 1989. The Common Loon cries for help. National Geographic 175: 510–524.

    Google Scholar 

  • McIntyre, J. W., 1991a. Status and summer distribution of Alaskan Yellow-billed Loons following the Valdez oil spill. In J. White (ed.), Proceed., the effects of oil on wildlife, Herndon, VA., The Sheridan Press, Hanover, (Penn.), 142–151.

    Google Scholar 

  • McIntyre, J. W. 1991b. Common Loons of the Stillwater Reservoir: 1990 breeding season. Report for Stillwater Associates Albany, N.Y.

  • McIntyre, J. W., 1992. Moonlight cantata. Nat. Hist. May: 56–57.

  • McIntyre, J. W. & J. F. Barr, 1983. Pre-migratory behavior of Common Loons on the autumn staging grounds. Wilson Bull. 95: 121–125.

    Google Scholar 

  • McIntyre, J. W. & J. Mathisen, 1977. Artificial islands as nest sites for Common Loons. J. Wildl Manage. 41: 317–319.

    Google Scholar 

  • McNicol, D. K., B. E. Bedell & R. K. Ross, 1987. Studies of the effects of acidification in aquatic wildlife in Canada: Waterfowl and trophic relationships in small lakes in northern Ontario. Can. Wildl. Serv. Occas. Pap. No. 62., 76 pp.

  • Merrie, T. D. H., 1979. Success of artificial island nest-sites for divers. Brit. Birds 72: 32–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, M. J., 1942. Black spot disease of speckled trout. Levre Canadiene de Biologie 6: 464–471.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, E. & T. Dring, 1988. Territorial defense of multiple lakes by Common Loon: a preliminary report. In: P. I. V. Strong (ed.), Papers 1987 Conf. Loon Res. Manage., Meredith, N.H.: 1–14.

  • Mitchell, B. A., 1989. Acid rain and birds: how much proof is needed? Am. Birds 43: 234–241.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morton, E. S., 1975. Ecological sources of selection on avian sounds. Am. Nat. 109: 17–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Munro, J. A., 1945. Observations of the loon in the Cariboo Parklands, British Columbia. Auk 62: 38–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • New Hampshire Loon Preservation Committee., 1990. Annual report to the North American Loon Fund.

  • Norberg, R. Å. & U. M. Norberg, 1971. Take-off, landing and flight speed during fishing flights of Gavia stellata (Pont.). Ornis Scand. 2: 55–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • North, M. R., 1986. Breeding biology of Yellow-billed Loons on the Colville River delta, arctic Alaska. MS thesis, N. D. State Univ., Fargo, 109 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olson, S. T. & W. H. Marshall. 1952. The Common Loon in Minnesota. University of Minnesota Occas. Papers No. 5., 77 pp.

  • Palmer, T. D. (ed.), 1962. Handbook of North American birds. Vol. 1. Yale University Press, New Haven (Conn.), 21–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parker, K. E., 1985. Observations of a flying Common Loon carrying a fish. J. Field Ornithol. 56: 412–413.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parker, K. E., 1986. The Common Loon in New York state. Rep. N.Y. Dept.Env. Cons., Delmar, N.Y.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parker, K. E., 1988. Common Loon reproduction and chick feeding on acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, New York. Can. J. Zool. 66: 804–810.

    Google Scholar 

  • Petersen, M. R., 1976. Breeding biology of Arctic and Red-throated Loons. MS thesis, University of California, Davis, 55 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Petersen, M. R., 1979. Nesting ecology of Arctic Loons. Wilson Bull. 91: 608–617.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, J., 1965. Foods eaten by aquatic fish-eating birds. Mich. Dept. of Cons. R and D. Report No. 44.

  • Pielou, E. C. 1991., After the ice age: The return of life to glaciated North America. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 366 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ploeger, 1968. Differentiation in arctic Anatidae. Ardea 56: 1–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pokras, M. A., R. Chafel & M. Gibson, Environmental pathology of the Common Loon (Gavia immer) in New England. Hydrobiologia/Dev. Hydrobiol (in press).

  • Rand, A. L., 1947. Geographical variation in the loon Gavia immer (Brunnich). Can. Field-Nat. 61: 193–195.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rand, A. L., 1948. Glaciation, an isolating factor in speciation. Evol 2: 314–321.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ream, C. H., 1976. Loon productivity, human disturbance and pesticide residues in northern Minnesota. Wilson Bull. 88: 427–432.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reiser, M. H., 1988. Productivity and nest site selection of Common Loons in a regulated lake system. In P. I. V. Strong (ed.), Papers Conf. Loon Res. and Manage. North American Loon Fund, Meredith (N.H.) 15–16 (abstr).

    Google Scholar 

  • Riedman, M. L. & J. A. Estes, 1988. Predation on seabirds by sea otters. Can. J. Zool. 66: 1396–1402.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruggles, A. K., 1991. Habitat selection by Common Loons (Gavia immer) in the Matanuska-Susitna Valley, Alaska. MS thesis, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, 98 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rummel, L. & C. Goetzinger, 1975. The communication of intraspecific aggression in the Common Loon. Auk 92: 333–346.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schindler, D. W., K. H. Mills, D. F. Malley, D. L. Findlay, J. A. Shearere, I. J. Davies, A. Turner, G. A. Linsey & D. R. Cruikshank. 1985. Long-term ecosystem stress: the effects of years of experimental acidification on a small lake. Science 228: 1395–1401.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sjölander, S., 1968. Iakttagelser øver storlommens (Gavia arctica L.) etologi. Sårtryck ur Zoologisk Revy 30: 889–93.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sjölander, S. & G. Ågren., 1976. Reproductive behavior of the Yellow-billed Loon Gavia adamsii. Condor 78: 454–463.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, E. L., 1981. Effects of canoeing on Common Loon production and survival on the Kenai National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska. MS thesis, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, 53 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Storer, R. W., 1960. Evolution in the diving birds. Proc. XII Internat. Ornithol, Congr. 694–707.

  • Storer, R. W., 1988. Variation in the Common Loon (Gavia immer) In P. I. V. Strong (ed.), Papers 1987 Conf. Loon Res. and Manage. North American Loon Fund, Meredith, (N.H.), 54–65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strong, P. I. V., 1985. Habitat selection by Common Loons. PhD diss. University of Maine, Orono, 53 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strong, P. I. V., 1987. Reuse of nesting and nursery areas by Common Loons. J. Wildl. Manage. 51: 123–127.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strong, P. I. V. & J. A. Bissonette, 1989. Feeding and chickrearing areas of Common Loons. J. Wildl. Manage. 53: 72–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stroud, R. K. & R. Lange, 1983. Information summary: Common Loon die-off winter and spring of 1983. Report, National Wildlife Health Laboratory, USFWS, Madison, (Wisc.)

    Google Scholar 

  • Titus, J. & L. VanDruff, 1981. Response of the Common Loon to recreational pressure in the Boundary Waters Canoe Area, northeastern Minnesota. Wildlife Monograph No. 79, 60 pp.

  • Vermeer, K., 1973a. Some aspects of the nesting requirements of Common Loons in Alberta. Wilson Bull. 85: 429–435.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vermeer, K., 1973b. Some aspects of the breeding and mortality of Common Loons in east-central Alberta. Can. Field-Nat. 87: 403–408.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woolfenden, G., 1972. Selection for a delayed simultaneous wing molt in loons (Gaviidae). Wilson Bull. 79: 416–420.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wooten, R. J., 1976. The biology of sticklebacks. Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yonge, K. S., 1981. The breeding cycle and annual production of the Common Loon (Gavia immer) in the boreal forest region. MS thesis, Univ. Manitoba, Winnipeg, 141 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Young, K. E., 1983. Seasonal and temporal patterning of Common Loons (Gavia immer) vocalizations. MS thesis, Syracuse University, Syracuse, (N.Y.), 56 pp.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Utica College of Syracuse University, 13502, Utica, NY, USA

    Judith W. McIntyre

Authors
  1. Judith W. McIntyre
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

McIntyre, J.W. Loons in freshwater lakes. Hydrobiologia 279, 393–413 (1994). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00027871

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00027871

Keywords

Search

Navigation