Synopsis
The relationship between the morphology, feeding strategies and social and mating systems of three surgeonfishes was investigated. Adults of each defend feeding territories, intra-and interspecifically. The largest species, because of its morphological limitation, relies on food that has to be defended against many other species. It forms large colonies in which fishes singly defend small territories containing high standing crop algal mats. Colony formation is a mechanism by which the efficiency and effectiveness of interspecific territory defense is increased. The smallest species, because of its morphological adaptations, is able to rely most on food that other species cannot efficiently exploit. It forms pairs that defend large territories containing a thin algal mat. It is restricted to the poorest quality habitat by the aggressive activities of more dominant species. The third species, which also forms pairs, has an intermediate feeding strategy. The local coexistence of these three and other surgeonfishes results from a combination of (i) their partitioning both habitat and food resources, and (ii) the populations of two of the most dominant species apparently being below the carrying capacity. Territoriality and the absence of parental care facilitates pair formation in surgeonfishes. Permanently territorial species usually form pairs. The colonial species does not form pairs because the colonial habit facilitates interference of males in each other's spawnings.
Similar content being viewed by others
References cited
Alexander, R. M. 1967. Functional design in fishes. Hutchinson Univ. Library, London. 160 pp.
Allen, G. R. 1975. Damselfishes of the South Seas. TFH Publications, Neptune City, N.J. 240 pp.
Bagenal, T. B. 1967. A short review of fish fecundity, pp. 89–111. In: S. D. Gerking (ed.) Biological Basis of Freshwater Fish Production: A Symposium Sponsored by the Sectional Committee on Productivity of Freshwater Communities of the IBP. Univ. Reading, England, Sept. 1–6, 1966. Blackwell, Oxford.
Bardach, J. E. 1959. The summer standing crop of fish on a shallow Bermuda reef. Limnol. Oceanogr. 4: 77–85.
Barlow, G. W. 1974a. Contrasts in social behavior between Central American cichlid fishes and coral-reef surgeonfishes. Am. Zool. 14: 9–34.
Barlow, G. W. 1974b. Extraspecific imposition of social grouping among surgeonfishes. J. Zool. Lond. 174: 333–340.
Belk, M. S. 1975. Habitat partitioning in two tropical reef fishes, Pomacentrus lividus and P. albofasciatus. Copeia 1975: 603–607.
Bohlke, J. E. & C. C. G. Chaplin. 1968. Fishes of the Bahamas and adjacent tropical waters. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia. 771 pp.
Brawley, S. H. & W. H. Adey. 1977. Territorial behavior of threespot damselfish (Eupomacentrus planifrons) increases reef algal biomass and productivity. Env. Biol. Fish. 2: 45–51.
Brockman, H. J. 1973. The function of poster-coloration in the beaugregory, Eupomacentrus leucostictus (Pomacentridae, Pisces). Z. Tierpsychol. 33: 13–34.
Brown, J. H., M. A. Cantrell & S. M. Evans. 1973. Observations on the behaviour and coloration of some coral reef fish (Family: Pomacentridae). Mar. Behav. Physiol. 2: 63–71.
Brown, J. L. 1964. The evolution of diversity in avian territorial systems. Wilson Bull. 76: 160–169.
Brown, J. L. & G. H. Orians. 1970. Spacing patterns in mobile animals. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 1: 239–262.
Carpenter, F. L. & R. E. MacMiller. 1976. Threshold model of feeding territoriality and test with a Hawaiian Honeycreeper. Science 194: 639–642.
Choat, J. H. & D. R. Robertson. 1975. Protogynous hermaphroditism in fishes of the family Scaridae. pp. 263–283. In: R. Reinboth (ed.) Intersexuality in the Animal Kingdom, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
Connell, J. H. 1973. Population ecology of reef-building corals, pp. 205–245. In: R. E. Endean & O. A. Jones (ed.) Biology and Geology of Coral Reefs, Vol. 2, Biology 1, Academic Press, New York.
Connell, J. H. 1978. Diversity in tropical rain forests and coral reefs. Science 199: 1302–1309.
Cott, H. B. 1940. Adaptive coloration in animals. Methuen Press, London. 508 pp.
Ebersole, J. P. 1977. The adaptive significance of interspecific territoriality in the reef fish, Eupomacentrus leucostictus. Ecology 58: 914–920.
Ehrlich, P. R., F. H. Talbot, B. C. Russell & G. R. Anderson. 1977. The behaviour of chaetodontid fishes with special reference to Lorenz's ‘poster colouration’ hypothesis. J. Zool. Lond. 183: 213–228.
Emery, A. R. 1973. Comparative ecology and functional osteology of fourteen species of damselfish (Pisces: Pomacentridae) at Alligator Reef, Florida Keys. Bull. Mar. Sci. 23: 649–770.
Fricke, H. W. 1974. Öko-ethologie des monogamen Anemonenfishes Amphiprion bicinctus (Freiwasseruntersuchung aus dem Roten Meer). Z. Tierpsychol. 36: 429–512.
Fricke, H. W. 1975. Evolution of social systems through site attachment in fish. Z. Tierpsychol. 39: 206–210.
Goldman, B. & F. H. Talbot. 1976. Aspects of the ecology of coral reef fishes. pp. 125–154. In: O. A. Jones & R. Endean (ed.) The Biology and Geology of Coral Reefs, Vol. 3, Biology 2, Academic Press, New York.
Hamilton, W. J. II & R. M. Peterman. 1971. Countershading in the colourful reef fish Chaetodon lunula: concealment, communication or both? Anim. Behav. 19: 357–364.
Hiatt, R. W. & D. W. Strasburg. 1960. Ecological relationships of the fauna on coral reefs on the Marshall Islands. Ecol. Monogr. 30: 65–127.
Itzkowitz, M. 1974. A behavioural reconnaissance of some Jamaican reef fishes. Zool. J. Linn. Soc. 55: 87–118.
Itzkowitz, M. 1977. Spatial organization of the Jamaican damselfish community. J. exp. mar. Biol. Ecol. 28: 217–241.
Johannes, R. E. 1978. Reproductive strategies of coastal marine fishes in the tropics. Env. Biol. Fish. 3: 65–84.
Jones, R. S. 1968. Ecological relationships in Hawaiian and Johnston Island Acanthuridae (Surgeonfishes). Micronesica 4: 309–361.
Kaufman, L. 1977. The three-spot damselfish: effects on the benthic biota of Caribbean coral reefs. Proc. Third Int. Symp. Coral Reefs 1: 559–564.
Lassig, B. 1976. Field observations on the reproductive behaviour of Paragobiodon spp. (Osteichthyes: Gobiidae) at Heron Island Great Barrier Reef. Mar. Behav. Physiol. 3: 283–293.
Longley, W. H. 1914. Report upon color of fishes of the Tortugas reefs. Yb. Carnegie Instn. Wash. 13: 207–208.
Lorenz, K. 1962. The function of color in coral reef fishes. Proc. Roy. Inst. Great Britain 39: 282–296.
Lorenz, K. 1966. On Aggression. Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc. 306 pp.
Munz, F. W. & W. N. McFarland. 1975. Part I. Presumptive cone pigments extracted from tropical marine fishes. Vis. Res. 15: 1045–1062.
Myrberg, A. A. Jr. 1972. Ethology of the bicolour damselfish, (Eupomacentms partitus (Pisces: Pomacentridae): A comparative analysis of laboratory and field behaviour. Anim. Behav. Monogr. 5: 199–283.
Myrberg, A. A. Jr. & R. E. Thresher. 1974. Interspecific aggression and its relevance to the concept of territoriality in reef fishes. Am. Zool. 14: 81–96.
Noble, G. K. 1939. The role of dominance in the social life of birds. Auk 56: 263–273.
Nursall, J. R. 1974. Some territorial behavioral attributes of the surgeonfish, Acanthurus lineatus, at Heron Island, Queensland. Copeia 1974: 950–959.
Ogden, J. C. & N. S. Buckman. 1973. Movements, foraging groups, and diurnal migrations of the striped parrotfish, Scarus croicensis Bloch (Scaridae). Ecology 54: 589–596.
Paine, R. T. 1966. Food web complexity and species diversity. Amer. Natur. 100: 65–75.
Perrone, M. Jr. & T. M. Zaret, in print. Parental care patterns of fishes. Amer. Natur.
Peterman, R. M. 1971. A possible function of coloration in coral reef fishes. Copeia 1971: 330–331.
Randall, J. E. 1955a: An analysis of the genera of-surgeonfishes (Family Acanthuridae). Pacific. Sci. 9: 359–367.
Randall, J. E. 1955b. A revision of the surgeonfish genera Zebrasoma and Peracanthurus. Pacif. Sci. 9: 396–412.
Randall, J.E. 1955c. A revision of the surgeonfish genus, Ctenochaetus, Family Acanthuridae, with descriptions of five new species. Zoologica N.Y. 40: 149–166.
Randall, J. E. 1956. A revision of the surgeonfsh genus Acanthurus. Pacif. Sci. 10: 159–235.
Randall, J. E. 1961a. A contribution to the biology of the convict surgeonfish of the Hawaiian Islands, Acanthurus triostegus sandvicensis. Pacif. Sci. 15: 215–272.
Randall, J. E. 1961b. Observations on the spawning of surgeonfishes (Acanthuridae) in the Society Islands. Copeia 1961: 237–238.
Randall, J. E. 1963. An analysis of the fish populations of artificial and natural reefs in the Virgin Islands. Carib. J. Sci. 3: 31–47.
Randall, J. E. 1967. Food habits of reef fishes of the West Indies. Stud. Trop. Oceanogr. 5: 665–847.
Randall, J. E. 1968. Caribbean Reef Fishes. TFH Publications, Neptune, N.J. 318 pp.
Reese, E. S. 1975. A comparative field study of the social behavior and related ecology of reef fishes of the family Chaetodontidae. Z. Tierpsychol. 37: 37–61.
Reinboth, R. 1973. Dualistic reproductive behavior in the protogynous wrasse Thalassoma bifasciatum and some observations on its day-night changeover. Helgolander wiss. Meersunters. 24: 174–191.
Robertson, D. R. & J. H. Choat. 1974. Protogynous hermaphroditism and social systems in labrid fish. Proc. Second Int. Symp. on Coral Reefs. 1: 217–225.
Robertson, D. R. & S. G. Hoffman. 1977. The roles of female mate choice and predation in the mating systems of some tropical labroid fishes. Z. Tierpsychol. 45: 298–320.
Robertson, D. R & J. M. Sheldon. Competition and the availability of sleeping sites for a diurnally active Caribbean reef fish. Manuscript in preparation.
Robertson, D. R., H. P. A. Sweatman, E. A. Fletcher & M. G. Cleland. 1976. Schooling as a mechanism for circumventing the territoriality of competitors. Ecology 57: 1208–1220.
Robertson, D. R. & R. R. Warner. 1978. Sexual patterns in the labroid fishes of the Western Caribbean. II The parrotfishes. Smith. Contrib. Zool. 255: 1–26.
Roughgarden, J. 1974. Species packing and the competition function with illustrations from coral reef fish. Theor. Pop. Biol. 5: 163–186.
Sale, P. F. 1974. Mechanisms of co-existence in a guild of territorial fishes at Heron Island. Proc. Second Int. Symp. on Coral Reefs 1: 193–206.
Sale, P. F. 1975. Patterns of use of space in a guild of territorial reef fishes. Mar. Biol. 29: 89–97.
Sale, P. F. 1976. Reef fish lottery. Nat. Hist. 85: 60–65.
Sale, P. F. 1977. Maintenance of high diversity in coral reef fish communities. Amer. Natur. 111: 337–359.
Sale, P. F. 1978. Coexistence of coral reef fishes — a lottery for living space. Env. Biol. Fish. 3: 85–102.
Sale, P. F. & R. Dybdahl. 1975. Determinants of community structure for coral reef fishes in an experimental habitat. Ecology 56: 1343–1355.
Schoener, T. W. 1971. Theory of feeding strategies. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 2: 369–404.
Smith, J. L. B. 1960. Coral fishes of the family Pomacentridae from the Western Indian Ocean and the Red Sea. Rhodes Univ. Ichthyol. Bull. 19: 1–32.
Smith, C. L. & J. C. Tyler. Space resource sharing in a coral reef fish community. Bull. Nat. Hist. Mus. LA County 14: 125–170.
Smith, C. L. & J. C. Tyler. 1973a. Direct observation of resource sharing in coral reef fish. Helgolander wiss. Merresunters 24: 264–275.
Smith, C. L. & J. C. Tyler. 1973b. Population ecology of a Bahamian suprabenthic shore fish assemblage. Am. Mus. Novitates 2528: 1–38.
Thresher, R. E. 1976a. Field analysis of the territoriality of the threespot damselfish, Eupomacentrus planifrons (Pomacentridae). Copeia 1976: 266–276.
Thresher, R. E. 1976b. Field experiments on species recognition by the threespot damselfsh, Eupomacentrus planifrons) (Pisces: Pomacentridae). Anim. Behav. 24: 562–569.
Thresher, R. E. 1977. Eye ornamentation of Caribbean reef fishes. Z. Tierpsychol. 43: 152–158.
Townsend, C. H. 1929. Records of changes in color among fishes. Zoologica, N.Y. 9: 321–342.
Vine, P. J. 1974. Effects of algal grazing and aggressive behavior of the fishes, Pomacentrus lividus and Acanthurus sohal, on coral reef ecology. Mar. Biol. 24: 131–136.
Warner, R. R. & D. R. Robertson. 1978. Sexual patterns in the labroid fishes of the Western Caribbean. I. The wrasses. Smith. Contrib. Zool. 254: 1–27.
Warner, R.R., D. R. Robertson & E. G. Leigh, Jr. 1975. Sex change and sexual selection. Science 190: 633–638.
Wolf, L. L. & F. G. Stiles. 1970. Evolution of pair cooperation in a tropical hummingbird. Evolution 24: 759–773.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Robertson, D.R., Polunin, N.V.C. & Leighton, K. The behavioral ecology of three Indian Ocean surgeonfishes (Acanthurus lineatus, A. leucosternon and Zebrasoma scopas): their feeding strategies, and social and mating systems. Environ Biol Fish 4, 125–170 (1979). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00005448
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00005448