Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Turning to God in Tough Times? Human Versus Material Losses from Climate Disasters in Canada

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Economics of Disasters and Climate Change Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Formal and informal insurance mechanisms help people recover from material losses associated with climate disasters. However, people may also find other ways to cope with human losses caused by disasters and research has suggested that religion may provide psychological relief to individuals experiencing adversity. Here, I test whether climate disasters have a causal effect on religious preferences and the intensity of these preferences across provinces in Canada. I look at the differentiated effect of material and human losses on religiosity. I create a dataset with socioeconomic and demographic information of individuals, including their religious preferences, and information on climate disasters at the provincial level in Canada for the period 1992–2012 and use an instrumental variable approach to deal with omitted variables. The novel finding of this paper is that the frequency of disasters and their impacts have different effects on religious preferences: 1) the number and the economic costs of disasters erode religion preferences, and 2) among religious individuals, human losses increase the intensity of their religious preferences. I also find that disasters at the country-wide level influence religious preferences at the local level.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. In Canada, the cases of the Calgary flood and Ontario floods in 2013 and 2014, and the case of wildfires in Fort McMurray. In the US, the cases of Hurricanes Katrina and Sandy in 2005, and 2012.

  2. Both released in summer 2015.

  3. The World Risk Index (www.irdrinternational.orf/2016/03/01/word-risk-index/) measures the vulnerability of society to natural disasters. The index defines 5 risk categories: very low (from a value of 0.08 to 3.46), low (from 3.47 to 5.46), middle (from 5.47 to 7.30), high (from 7.31 to 10.39), and very high (from 10.40 to 36.72). The value of the Index for Canada is 3.01% (very low risk). According to this Index, the safest country is Qatar with a value 0.08%, while the riskiest is Vanuatu with a value of 36.72% (very high risk). For comparison purposes, the US has a value in the ranking of 3,76% (low risk), Great Britain a value of 3.54% (low risk), and Australia a value of 4.22% (low risk). The riskiest areas of the world include Southeast Asia, Central America and the Southern Sahel.

  4. With the exception of four years (2002, 2007, 2008 and 2009) when Canada was not part of the survey.

  5. The results from Ordered Probit and Interval Regressions produce similar results.

  6. The results from the estimation models that disregard the problem of endogeneity are presented in Appendix Tables 7 and 8. Significant and stronger effects are found when endogeneity is considered.

References

  • Ager P, Ciccone A (2015) Agricultural risk and the spread of religious communities”, EHES Working Papers in Economic History, No.74.

  • Azagba S, Asbridge M, Langille DB (2014) Is religiosity positively associated with school connectedness: Evidence from High School Students in Atlantic Canada. J Prim Prev 35(6):417–427

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Balbuena L, Baetz M, Bowen R (2013) Religious attendance, spirituality, and major depression in Canada: A 14-year follow-up study. Can J Psychiatr 58(4):225–232

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barro R, McCleary RM (2005) Which countries have state religions? Q J Econ 120(4):1331–1370

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartke S, Schwarze R (2008) Risk-averse by nation or by religion? some insights on the determinants of individual risk attitudes. SOEP paper No. 131

  • Belloc M, Drago F, Galbiati R (2016) Earthquakes, religion, and transition to self-government in Italian cities. CESifo Working Paper Series No. 5566

  • Benabou R, Tirole J (2006) Incentives and prosocial behavior. Am Econ Rev 96(5):1652–1678

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benabou R, Tirole J (2011) Identity, morals, and taboos: beliefs as assets. Q J Econ 126(2):805–855

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benabou R, Ticchi D, Vindigni A (2015) Forbidden fruits: the political economy of science, religion, and Growth. NBER Working Paper No. 21105. Cambridge. MA

  • Bentzen JS (2015) Acts of God? religiosity and natural disasters across subnational world districts. University of Copenhagen, Department of Economics Discussion Paper No. 15–06.

  • Berger IE (2006) The influence of religion on philanthropy in Canada. Int J Volunt Nonprofit Org 17(2):115–132

    Google Scholar 

  • Brossard D, Scheufele DA, Kim E, Lewenstein BV (2009) Religiosity as a perceptual filter: examining processes of opinion formation about nanotechnology. Public Underst Sci 18(5):546–558

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burke MB, Miguel E, Satyanath S, Dykema JA, Lobell DB (2009) Warming increases the risk of civil war in Africa. PNAS 106(49):20670–20,674

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cavallo E, Galiani S, Noy I, Pantano J (2013) Catastrophic natural disasters and economic growth. Rev Econ Stat 95(5):1549–1561

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cavallo A, Cavallo E, Rigobon R (2014) Prices and supply disruptions during natural disasters. Rev Income Wealth 60(S2):S449–S471. https://doi.org/10.1111/roiw.12141

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chaney E (2013) Revolt on the Nile: economic shocks, religion and political power. Econometrica 81:2033–2053

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen DL (2010) Club goods and group identity: evidence from islamic resurgence during the indonesian financial crisis. J Polit Econ 118:300–354

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark A, Lelkes O (2004) Deliver us from evil: religion as insurance. Papers on economics of religion 06/03.

  • Connor P (2008) Increase or decrease? the impact of the international migratory event on immigrant religious participation. J Sci Study Relig 47(2):243–257

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Connor P (2009) Immigrant religiosity in Canada: Multiple trajectories. J Int Migr Integr 10(2):159–175

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dehejia R, DeLeire T, Luttmer EFP (2007) Insuring Consumption and Happiness through Religious Organizations. J Public Econ 91:259–279

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dennett DC (2006) Breaking the Spell: Religion as Natural Phenomenon. Penguin Group, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Diamond J (2012) The world until yesterday: What can we learn from traditional societies? Penguin Group, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Dilmaghani M (2015) Religiosity, gender, and wage: the differentiated impact of private prayer in Canada. Int J Soc Econ 42(10):888–905

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dilmaghani M (2017a) Religiosity and labour earnings in Canadian Provinces. J Lab Res 38(1):82–99

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dilmaghani M (2017b) Religiosity and subjective Wellbeing in Canada. J Happiness Stud. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-016-9837-7

  • Dilmaghani M (2017c) Religiosity and social trust: evidence from Canada. Rev Soc Econ 75(1):49–75

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dilmaghani M (2018) Importance of religion or spirituality and mental health in Canada. J Relig Health 58(1):120–135

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dilmaghani M, Dean J (2016) Religiosity and female labour market attainment in Canada: the Protestant exception. Int J Soc Econ 43(3):244–262

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eagle DE (2011) Changing patterns of attendance at religious services in Canada, 1986–2008. J Sci Study Relig 50(1):187–200

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eyer J, Dinterman R, Miller N, Rose A (2018) the effect of disasters on migration destinations: Evidence from Hurricane Katrina. Econ Disasters Clim Chang. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41885-017-0020-3

  • Gaskell G, Hallman W, Jackson J (2005) Social values and the governance of science. Science 310:1908–1909

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gill A, Lundsgaarde E (2004) State welfare spending and religiosity: A cross-national analysis. Ration Soc 16(4):399–346

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guiso L, Sapienza P, Zingales L (2003) People’s opium? religion and economic attitudes. J Monet Econ 50(1):225–282

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haile MG, Wossen T, Tesfaye K, von Braun J (2017) Impact of climate change, weather extremes, and price risk on global food supply. Econ Disasters Clim Chang 1(1):55–75. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41885-017-0005-2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoeppe P (2016) Trends in weather related disasters: Consequences for insurers and society. Weather Clim Extremes 11:70–79

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hsiang SM, Sobel AH (2016) Potentially extreme population displacement and concentration in the tropics under non-extreme warming. Sci Rep. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep25697

  • Hsiang SM, Burke M, Miguel E (2013) Quantifying the influence of climate on human conflict. Science 341(6151):1235367. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1235367

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hsiang SM, Kopp R, Jina A, Rising J, Delgado M, Mohan S, Rasmussen DJ, Muir-Wood R, Wilson P, Oppenheimer M, Larsen K, Houser T (2017) Estimating economic damage from climate change in the United States. Science 356(6345):1362–1369. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aal4369

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Iannaccone LR (1988) A Formal Model of Church and Sect. Am J Sociol 94(Supplement):S241–S268

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Iannaccone LR (1992) Sacrifice and Stigma: Reducing Free-Riding in Cults, Communes, and Other Collectives. J Polit Econ 100(2):271–291

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Iannaccone LR (1995) Voodoo Economics? Reviewing the Rational Choice Approach to Religion. J Sci Study Relig 34(1):76–88

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kahn ME (2005) The Death Toll from Natural Disasters: The Role of Income, Geography and Institutions. Rev Econ Stat 87(2):271–284

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keerthiratne S, Tol RSJ (2017) Impact of Natural Disasters on Financial Development. Econ Disasters Clim Chang 1:33–54

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kneale M (2014) An Atheist’s History of Belief: Understanding our Most Extraordinary Invention. The Bodley Head. London.

  • Levy G, Razin R (2012) Religious Beliefs, Religious Participation, and Cooperation. Am Econ J: Microecon 4(3):121–151

    Google Scholar 

  • Loayza NV, Olaberría E, Rigolini J, Christiaensen L (2012) Natural Disasters and Growth: Going Beyond the Average. World Dev 40(7):1317–1336

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maddala GS (1983) Limited Dependent and Qualitative Variables in Econometrics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

  • Marger M (2013) Religiosity in Canada and the United States: Diverging Paths. Am Rev Can Stud 43(1):70–85

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCleary RM, Barro R (2003) Religion and economic growth across countries. Am Sociol Rev 68(5):760–781

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mela MA, Marcoux E, Baetz M, Griffin R, Angelski C, Deqiang G (2008) The effect of religiosity and spirituality on psychological well-being among forensic psychiatric patients in Canada. Ment Health Relig Cult 11(5):517–532

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mullainathan S, Shafir E (2013) Scarcity: why having too little means so much (1st ed.). Times Books, Henry Holt and Co. New York.

  • Munro A, Managi S (2017) Going back: radiation and intentions to return among household evacuated after the great tohoku earthquake. Econ Disasters Clim Chang 1(1):77–93. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41885-017-0001-6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nunn N, Qian N (2014) US Food Aid and Civil Conflict. Am Econ Rev 104(6):1630–1666

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Onuma H, Shin KJ, Managi S (2017a) Household preparedness for natural disasters: Impact of disaster experience and implications for future disaster risks in Japan. Int J Disaster Risk Reduct 21:148–158

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Onuma H, Shin KJ, Managi S (2017b) Reduction of future disaster damages by learning from disaster experiences. Nat Hazards 87(3):1435–1452

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parida Y, Dash DP, Bhardwaj P, Chowdhury JR (2018) Effects of drought and flood on farmer suicide in Indian States: an empirical analysis. Econ Disasters Climat Chang. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41885-018-0023-8

  • Park C, Cohen L, Herb L (1990) Intrinsic religiousness and religious coping as life stress moderators for Catholics versus Protestants. J Pers Soc Psychol 59(3):562–574

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parker M (2017) The Impact of Disasters on Inflation. Econ Disasters Clim Chang. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41885-017-0017-y

  • Pecha C, Ruprah IJ (2015) Religion as an Unemployment Insurance and the Basis of Support for Public Safety Nets: The Case of Latin America and the Caribbean. IDB Working Paper Series No. 601. Washington D.C.

  • Rajapaksa D, Islam M, Managi S (2017) Natural capital depletion: the impact of natural disasters on inclusive growth. Econ Disasters Climat Chang. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41885-017-0009-y

  • Reimer SH (1995) A look at cultural effects on religiosity: A comparison between the United States and Canada. J Sci Study Relig 34(4):445–457

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reitz JG, Barnerjee R, Phan M, Thompson J (2009) Race, religion, and the social integration of new immigrant Minorities in Canada. Int Migr Rev 43(4):695–726

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rush JV (2018) The impact of natural disasters on education in indonesia. Econ Disasters Climat Chang. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41885-017-0022-1

  • Scheve K, Stasavage D (2006) Religion and preferences for social insurance. Q J Pol Sci 1:255–286

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skidmore M, Toya H (2002) Do natural disasters promote long-run growth? Econ Inq 40(4):664–687

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith TT, Hardman RK, Richards PS, Fischer L (2003) Intrinsic religiousness and spiritual well-being as predictors of treatment outcome among women with eating disorders. The Journal of Treatment and Prevention 11(1):15–26

    Google Scholar 

  • Stern G (2007) Can God Intervene? How Religion Explains Natural Disasters. Praeger Publishers, Westport

    Google Scholar 

  • Strobl E (2012) The economic growth impact of natural disasters in developing countries: Evidence from hurricane strikes in the Central American and Caribbean regions. J Dev Econ 97(1):130–141

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thiessen J, Dawson LL (2008) Is there a “renaissance” of religion in Canada? A critical look at Bibby and beyond. Stud Religi 37(3–4):389–415

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vu TB, Im EI, Hayashi K, Torio R (2017) Cyclones, Deforestation, and Production of Food Crops in Vietnam. Econ Disasters Climat Chang 1(3):245–262. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41885-017-0010-5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilkins-Laflamme S (2014) Towards Religious Polarization? Time Effects on Religious Commitment in U.S., UK, and Canadian Regions. Sociol Relig 75(2): 284–308

  • Wilkins-Laflamme S (2015) How unreligious are the religious “Nones”? Religious Dynamics of the Unaffiliated in Canada. Can J Sociol 40(4):477–500

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson EO (2012) The Social Conquest of Earth. Liveright Publishing Corporation, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Yonson R (2018) Floods and pestilence: diseases in Philippine urban areas. Econ Disasters Climat Chang. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41885-017-0021-2

  • Zivin G, Hsiang JS, Neidell M (2017) Temperature and human capital in the short and long-run. J Assoc Environ Resour Econ. https://doi.org/10.1086/694177

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Water Planning Lab – School of Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada

    Oscar Zapata

Authors
  1. Oscar Zapata
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Oscar Zapata.

Appendices

Appendix 1

Table 7 Probit regression with believing in God as the dependent variable
Full size table
Table 8 OLS regression with frequency of attendance as the dependent variable
Full size table

Appendix 2

Table 9 First-stage regression results with believing in God as the dependent variable
Full size table
Table 10 First-stage regression results with frequency of attendance as the dependent variable
Full size table

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Zapata, O. Turning to God in Tough Times? Human Versus Material Losses from Climate Disasters in Canada. EconDisCliCha 2, 259–281 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41885-018-0029-2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s41885-018-0029-2

Keywords

JEL Classification

Search

Navigation