Germination of several wheat cultivars in desert soil after amendment with raw and digested poultry manure with and without combination with mineral fertilizer
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Abstract
Purpose
This study aimed to investigate the effect of time interval between sowing and amendment with non-digested and digested poultry manure and their combinations with urea on the germination of three wheat cultivars (Slambo, Acsad, and Karim) in the desert soil.
Methods
The cultivars were sown on four different dates, i.e. directly, 10, 20 and 30 days after amendment. Fertilizers were applied at a rate of 350 kg Tot N ha−1. The germinated seeds were recorded daily starting at day 4 after sowing until day 14 after which the following germination attributes were calculated: time to reach 50% germination (T50%), final germination percentage (FGP) and germination index (GI). Additionally, radicle length, plumule length and seedling dry weight were also determined.
Results
Sowing near to the application delayed and reduced seeds germination particularly in the treatments amended with non-digested and digested manure in combination urea. This was confirmed by all germination attributes, i.e. high values of T50% and low values of FGP and GI. Moreover, sowing near to the application reduced the length of plumule and radicle as well as decreased seedling dry weight of all wheat cultivars.
Conclusion
Results suggested that prolonging the period between amendments and sowing to 20 or 30 days would give better germination attributes and increase plumule and radicle length plus increasing seedling dry weight.
Keywords
Seed germination Digestate Poultry manure Urea Wheat cultivarsIntroduction
Desert soil is by far the predominant soil in the southern part of Libya, where grain crops such as barley and wheat are cultivated under sprinkler irrigation. Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) occupies the first rank in Libya in terms of cultivated area, i.e. about 165,000 ha with an annual yield of 200,000 tons (Alabasi et al. 2017). In this region, wheat yield is far below the optimal due to the fertility of desert soils is low to provide the crop with the essential plant nutrients. Therefore, the application of fertilizers to this soil is necessary to improve its productivity. Urea is the most widely used chemical nitrogenous fertilizer in Libya, although several studies have shown that it is not good for improving soil properties (Angus et al. 2014; Lungu and Dynoodt 2008). Therefore, replacing chemical fertilizers with organic fertilizers or combine it with organic fertilizers is required to improve soil fertility. Numerous studies have reported that the application of organic fertilizers to soils of arid and semiarid regions enhances significantly soil fertility through improving soil properties compare to application of mineral fertilizers (Diacono and Montemurro 2010; Elhadi et al. 2016; Elnesairy et al. 2016; Hati et al. 2006). Organic fertilizers such as animal manures have a considerable amount of nutrients in organic form and hence is not immediately available to the plant until decomposition by heterotrophic soil microorganisms occurs (Ladd and Jackson 1982). In fact, due to the dryness and the absence of soil organic matter, desert soils have a low microbial activity to breakdown organic components and release plant nutrients (Angel et al. 2013; Makhalanyane et al. 2015). It has been reported that microbial communities of the desert soil have higher relative abundances of genes associated with dormancy and lower abundances associated with the nutrient release (Fierer et al. 2012). Therefore, anaerobic digestion of animal manure before application to the soil might be an effective way to increase nutrient availability to the plant. Several studies have shown that fertilizing soils with digested manure results in higher yields compare to compost and mineral fertilizers (Abubaker et al. 2012, 2017; Abubaker 2012). Anaerobic digestion is used worldwide to sustain waste management and produce bioenergy (Angelidaki and Ahring 2000). Moreover, anaerobic digestion leads to the generation of residues called digestate that rich in mineralized plant nutrients (Makádi et al. 2012; Möller and Müller 2012; Odlare et al. 2011). Although, digested and non-digested organic waste has a positive effect on crop yield, however, some other studies have reported an adverse effect of these materials on wheat seeds germination. Abubaker et al. (2017) reported that the application of digestate and non-digested to desert soil, especially in the combination with urea delayed and reduced the germination of wheat seeds. In another study by Bacilio et al. (2003) showed that the composts generated from dairy cow manure have inhibitory effects on wheat seed germination. This negative effect has been attributed to the contaminants that generated during decomposition of organic waste such as ethylene oxide (Wong et al. 1983) and organic acid (Bacilio et al. 2003; Makádi et al. 2012). Moreover, the concentration of ammonia in digestate is high (García-González et al. 2016) and this can reduce and delay wheat seeds germination (Bremner and Krogmeier 1989; Wan et al. 2016). In fact, it is unclear if this adverse effect will last for a short or long period and thus can be avoided by adjusting the cultivation strategy, e.g. prolonging the period between application and sowing. The objective of present study was to investigate the influence of time interval between sowing and application of non-digested and anaerobically digested poultry manure with and without combination with urea on the germination of three wheat cultivars in desert soil.
Materials and methods
Soil sampling and description
Physical and chemical properties of the soil used in the germination experiment
Parameters | Values |
---|---|
Physical properties | |
Sand (%) | 97 |
Clay (%) | 1.3 |
Silt (%) | 1.7 |
Water-holding capacity (%) | 21.5 |
Chemical properties | |
pHpaste | 8.2 |
ECe (ds m−1) | 2.8 |
OM (%) | 0.4 |
Tot N (%) | 0.09 |
Tot C (%) | 0.89 |
P (g kg−1 dw) | 0.07 |
K (g kg−1 dw) | 0.08 |
Na (g kg−1 dw) | 0.25 |
Mg (g kg−1 dw) | 0.05 |
Ca (g kg−1 dw) | 0.2 |
Non-digested, digested manure and urea
Physical and chemical characteristics of non-digested and digested poultry manure used in germination experiment
Parameters | Non-digested manure | Digested manure |
---|---|---|
DM (%) | 98 | 15.2 |
pH | 9.3 | 9.7 |
Tot N (g kg−1 dw) | 42.6 | 46.2 |
Tot C (g kg−1 dw) | 470 | 395 |
C/N | 11 | 9 |
Tot P (g kg−1 dw) | 14.2 | 13.9 |
Tot K (g kg−1 dw) | 3.9 | 18 |
Treatments
Treatments used in the germination experiment
No. | Abbreviations | Treatments |
---|---|---|
1 | C | No fertilization |
2 | U | Urea |
3 | PM | Non-digested poultry manure |
4 | PM + U | Non-digested poultry manure (50% N) + urea (50% N) |
5 | DPM | Digested poultry manure |
6 | DPM + U | Digested poultry manure (50% N) + urea (50% N) |
Sowing and germination attributes
Four sets of dishes were prepared, each set contains 60 dishes in total 240 dishes (fertilized) + 12 unfertilized dishes were used as control (control was run only at the first sowing). The first set was sowed directly after amendment, the second set sowed 10 days after amendment, the third set sowed 20 days after amendment and the fourth set sowed 30 days after amendment. Each dish was sowed with 15 seeds at the depth of 1 cm (broken and small seeds were avoided), i.e. corresponding to a sown rate of 170 kg seeds ha−1. Before the start of the experiment, all wheat cultivars were tested for their vitalities according to Ellis et al. (1985), which were 99 ± 4, 89 ± 6 and 95 ± 3 for Slambo, Karim and Acsad, respectively. After sowing, all dishes were placed on trolleys under controlled condition (13 h day, 11 h night, temperature 20 ± 2 °C and air humidity 34%). The sowed dishes were checked daily and germinated seeds were counted at day 4, 6, 8, 9, 12 and 14 from sowing. From the germination counts, several germination attributes were calculated including time to reach 50% germination (T50%), final germination percentage (FGP) and germination index (GI). T50% was calculated according to the formula of Coolbear et al. (1984) modified by Farooq et al. (2005). FGP and GI were calculated according to the formulas described by Dastanpoor et al. (2013). At the end of the experiment (day 14), seedlings were carefully removed from the soil by placing them in flat pans of water where radicles could be freed from soil particles with little injury. After that, the length of plumule and radicle of each seedling was measured. In the end, seedling dry weight in each treatment was determined after drying in the oven at 75 °C for 24 h.
Statistical analyses
The obtained data were analysed using the SPSS (WIN. Version 17) procedure GLM multiple variables, where two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey (HSD) multiple comparison tests were used for repeated testing of paired differences between treatments regarding T50%, FGP, GI, plumule length, radicle length and seedling dry weight, where time of sowing, fertilizer type, wheat cultivars and their interactions were considered as fixed factors. The dataset was unbalanced as it contained only one set of control running at first sowing. Differences considered significant at p < 0.05 unless otherwise not stated.
Results
Germination attributes
Application of non-digested and digested poultry manure especially in combination with U had delayed and reduced the germination of the three wheat cultivars considerably in the first and second sowing. However, in the third and fourth sowing, the germination enhanced markedly. This adverse effect was confirmed by all germination attributes i.e. high values of T50% and low values of FGP and GI. The analysis of variance showed that the germination of wheat seeds was mostly affected by fertilizer type and sowing date rather than wheat cultivars. Statistical analysis showed significant (p < 0.05) effect of sowing date and fertilizer type on T50%, FGP and GI. Whereas the effect of wheat cultivars was only significant (p < 0.05) on FGP but not on the other germination attributes. Moreover, the analysis of variance showed significant (p < 0.05) interaction effect of sowing date × fertilizer type and fertilizer type × wheat cultivars on all germination attributes. Whereas, the interaction effect of sowing date × fertilizer type × wheat cultivars was only significant (p < 0.05) on FGP but not on the other germination attributes.
Time to reach 50% germination
The time to reach 50% germination (T50%) of three wheat cultivars (Slambo, Acsad and Karim) after 14 days growing period sown in desert soil on four sowing dates after amendment with non-digested and anaerobically digested poultry manure with and without combination with urea
Fertilizer type | Wheat cultivars | T50% (days) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
First sowing | Second sowing | Third sowing | Fourth sowing | ||
C | Slambo | 5.7 ± 1.3 | – | – | – |
C | Acsad | 5.6 ± 0.6 | – | – | – |
C | Karim | 3.4 ± 0.6 | – | – | – |
Urea | Slambo | 7.6 ± 2.0 | 5.0 ± 1.1 | 4.4 ± 0.8 | 3.8 ± 1.2 |
Urea | Acsad | 5.9 ± 1.4 | 5.5 ± 1.9 | 5.0 ± 1.4 | 3.8 ± 1.4 |
Urea | Karim | 6.4 ± 1.1 | 5.6 ± 3.6 | 5.4 ± 1.2 | 4.7 ± 1.4 |
PM | Slambo | 3.0 ± 0.0 | 4.3 ± 2.2 | 6.6 ± 1.6 | 3.8 ± 1.4 |
PM | Acsad | 3.4 ± 0.8 | 5.3 ± 2.0 | 4.6 ± 2.7 | 4.4 ± 1.3 |
PM | Karim | 3.7 ± 1.2 | 4.5 ± 0.9 | 4.0 ± 0.0 | 4.8 ± 1.6 |
PM + U | Slambo | 9.1 ± 0.9 | 3.3 ± 0.6 | 4.3 ± 0.7 | 3.0 ± 0.0 |
PM + U | Acsad | 10.3 ± 3.8 | 4.3 ± 2.2 | 4.4 ± 1.2 | 3.6 ± 1.0 |
PM + U | Karim | 9.2 ± 3.3 | 6.5 ± 0.5 | 4.2 ± 1.0 | 3.0 ± 0.0 |
DPM | Slambo | 4.0 ± 0.0 | 4.1 ± 1.0 | 4.0 ± 0.9 | 2.5 ± 0.9 |
DPM | Acsad | 3.8 ± 0.6 | 4.0 ± 0.9 | 4.3 ± 1.3 | 3.0 ± 0.0 |
DPM | Karim | 5.0 ± 0.9 | 3.8 ± 1.4 | 3.6 ± 0.8 | 3.4 ± 0.8 |
DPM + U | Slambo | 7.3 ± 1.2 | 7.0 ± 0.0 | 4.7 ± 0.4 | 3.0 ± 1.4 |
DPM + U | Acsad | 7.9 ± 2.6 | 6.6 ± 2.2 | 4.2 ± 1.0 | 3.0 ± 0.0 |
DPM + U | Karim | 5.1 ± 2.7 | 7.0 ± 1.0 | 4.2 ± 1.0 | 3.4 ± 1.4 |
Final germination percentage
Final germination percentage (FGP) of three wheat cultivars (Slambo, Acsad and Karim) after 14 days growing period sown in desert soil on four sowing dates after amendment with non-digested and anaerobically digested poultry manure with and without combination with urea
Fertilizer type | Wheat cultivars | FGP (%) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
First sowing | Second sowing | Third sowing | Fourth sowing | ||
C | Slambo | 88 ± 1.4 | – | – | – |
C | Acsad | 93 ± 2.5 | – | – | – |
C | Karim | 88 ± 6.3 | – | – | – |
Urea | Slambo | 93 ± 6 | 63 ± 15 | 67 ± 6 | 93 ± 12 |
Urea | Acsad | 70 ± 10 | 73 ± 6 | 60 ± 0 | 83 ± 6 |
Urea | Karim | 90 ± 17 | 70 ± 17 | 77 ± 6 | 90 ± 10 |
PM | Slambo | 93 ± 12 | 100 ± 0 | 93 ± 12 | 100 ± 0 |
PM | Acsad | 100 ± 0 | 93 ± 12 | 100 ± 0 | 100 ± 0 |
PM | Karim | 60 ± 0 | 87 ± 12 | 80 ± 0 | 87 ± 12 |
PM + U | Slambo | 80 ± 20 | 93 ± 12 | 100 ± 0 | 100 ± 0 |
PM + U | Acsad | 60 ± 0 | 73 ± 23 | 100 ± 0 | 100 ± 0 |
PM + U | Karim | 47 ± 12 | 73 ± 12 | 100 ± 0 | 87 ± 12 |
DPM | Slambo | 93 ± 12 | 93 ± 12 | 100 ± 0 | 100 ± 0 |
DPM | Acsad | 100 ± 0 | 93 ± 12 | 100 ± 0 | 100 ± 0 |
DPM | Karim | 93 ± 12 | 87 ± 12 | 100 ± 0 | 93 ± 12 |
DPM + U | Slambo | 53 ± 23 | 93 ± 12 | 100 ± 0 | 100 ± 0 |
DPM + U | Acsad | 73 ± 12 | 67 ± 31 | 100 ± 0 | 93 ± 12 |
DPM + U | Karim | 80 ± 0 | 80 ± 0 | 87 ± 23 | 87 ± 23 |
Moreover, FGP for Slambo cultivar was significantly (p < 0.05) low in the treatment amended with DPM + U compared to treatment amended with PM + U in the first sowing. At the second, third and fourth sowing FGP increased significantly (p < 0.05) in both PM + U and DPM + U treatments without any significant differences between them. Moreover, in the treatments sowed with Acsad and Karim cultivars, it seems PM + U had lowered their FGP significantly (p < 0.05) compared to the application of DPM + U in the first sowing. Overall, FGP had increased significantly (p < 0.05) in the fourth sowing compared to the other sowing dates, where they have reached their maximum (100%) especially for Slambo and Acsad cultivars.
Germination index
Germination index (GI) of three wheat cultivars (Slambo, Acsad and Karim) after 14 days growing period sown in desert soil on four sowing dates after amendment with non-digested and anaerobically digested poultry manure with and without combination with urea
Fertilizer type | Wheat cultivars | GI (% day−1) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
First sowing | Second sowing | Third sowing | Fourth sowing | ||
C | Slambo | 11 ± 0.3 | – | – | – |
C | Acsad | 14 ± 0.5 | – | – | – |
C | Karim | 15 ± 1.5 | – | – | – |
Urea | Slambo | 13.9 ± 0.8 | 11.7 ± 2.7 | 8.4 ± 2.0 | 15.3 ± 3.1 |
Urea | Acsad | 11.8 ± 1.2 | 12.5 ± 0.8 | 7.5 ± 1.4 | 13.0 ± 2.0 |
Urea | Karim | 13.0 ± 4.3 | 10.8 ± 3.0 | 10.6 ± 2.1 | 14.7 ± 2.9 |
PM | Slambo | 13.4 ± 2.8 | 16.7 ± 0.0 | 15.0 ± 1.7 | 15.8 ± 0.8 |
PM | Acsad | 14.6 ± 3.6 | 12.9 ± 1.6 | 14.8 ± 2.5 | 16.7 ± 1.7 |
PM | Karim | 11.7 ± 0.5 | 13.3 ± 1.4 | 12.5 ± 0.0 | 13.2 ± 1.0 |
PM + U | Slambo | 7.9 ± 2.4 | 14.7 ± 1.9 | 19.4 ± 1.9 | 16.7 ± 0.0 |
PM + U | Acsad | 4.7 ± 0.3 | 11.3 ± 4.0 | 17.8 ± 1.0 | 16.9 ± 1.3 |
PM + U | Karim | 3.8 ± 0.6 | 10.1 ± 1.7 | 17.8 ± 1.0 | 14.2 ± 1.4 |
DPM | Slambo | 15.0 ± 1.4 | 16.4 ± 1.7 | 18.3 ± 1.7 | 16.0 ± 0.6 |
DPM | Acsad | 16.7 ± 0.0 | 17.2 ± 3.5 | 17.8 ± 1.9 | 16.4 ± 0.5 |
DPM | Karim | 13.3 ± 1.4 | 13.5 ± 1.4 | 16.3 ± 1.8 | 16.7 ± 3.3 |
DPM + U | Slambo | 5.7 ± 1.0 | 11.0 ± 0.9 | 16.7 ± 0.0 | 16.4 ± 1.3 |
DPM + U | Acsad | 6.7 ± 0.0 | 7.6 ± 3.6 | 17.8 ± 1.0 | 15.6 ± 1.9 |
DPM + U | Karim | 10.3 ± 1.0 | 10.6 ± 1.0 | 15.6 ± 4.8 | 17.5 ± 4.6 |
Plumule and radicle length
Plumule and radicle length of three wheat cultivars (Slambo, Acsad and Karim) after 14 days growing period sown in desert soil on four sowing dates after amendment with non-digested and anaerobically digested poultry manure with and without combination with urea. Bars represent mean ± standard deviation (n = 4)
Seedlings dry weight
Seedling dry weight of three wheat cultivars (Slambo, Acsad and Karim) after 14 days growing period sown in desert soil on four sowing dates after amendment with non-digested and anaerobically digested poultry manure with and without combination with urea. Bars represent mean ± standard deviation (n = 4)
Discussion
Several studies have shown that application of non-digested and digested manures enhanced wheat growth and yield particularly at combination with U (Abubaker et al. 2017; Kiani et al. 2005). However, in the present study, the germination of wheat cultivars was delayed and reduced when sowing was made directly or after 10 days from amendments with non-digested and digested manures. The adverse effect was more pronounced in the treatments amended with non-digested and digested manures in combination with urea as well as sole urea. This observation was in agreement with results reported by Abubaker et al. (2017) who found that sowing wheat seeds two days after amendment with non-digested and digested poultry manure with and without combination with urea reduced germination percentage considerably. Moreover, Gupta and Gupta (2011) reported a similar effect on okra seeds germination when sowing was performed 6 to 18 h after treatment with anaerobically digested poultry manure. This negative effect has been explained by the existence of humic acids in digested manure that formed during anaerobic digestion (Bacilio et al. 2003; Šerá and Novák 2011). In another study, Kaparaju et al. (2012) reported that anaerobically digested orange waste have a toxic effect on seeds germination of Chinese cabbage and they referred this toxicity to ammonia and organic acids in the digestate. Tunes et al. (2012) have reported that the presence of organic acids which originating from the anaerobic decomposition of organic material can significantly reduce the germination of wheat cultivars, radicle length and dry weight. It is well known that concentration of ammonia in digested manure is higher compared to raw manure (García-González et al. 2016), which was found to reduces wheat seed germination and suppresses root hair formation (Bremner and Krogmeier 1989; Wan et al. 2016). The adverse effect of combining manure with urea on seeds germination and radicle length have been reported in another study where they referred this adverse effect to the presence of ammonia, which formed through hydrolysis of urea by soil urease (Bremner and Krogmeier 1989). Moreover, Wan et al. (2016) have reported an inhibition effect of urea on seed germination and radicle growth in six wheat cultivars, they explained this effect by the formation of ammonia in the soil after application. Soil microorganisms can contribute to ammonia production in the soil by releasing ureases enzyme, which will convert urea to carbon dioxide and ammonia (Maier 2009). However, sowing seeds either 20 or 30 days after amendment enhanced seed germination, radicle length, plumule length and seedling dry weight. This probably was due to the degradation of fertilizers components and the transformation of mineral N by soil microorganisms (Powlson et al. 2001). Kuwatsuka and Shindo (1973) have reported that the concentration of phenolic substances in waste-treated soil decreased rapidly and reached that of the control on the day 30 after waste disposal. In addition, degradation of organic materials will also lead to the release of plant nutrients, which will enhance the growth of radicle and plumule resulted in increasing seedling dry weight. The present study showed that Acsad and Slambo cultivars had better germination percentages than those of Karim. This was probably due to their vitalities, which were higher for Slambo (99 ± 4%) and Acsad (95 ± 3%) compared to Karim (89 ± 6%).
Conclusion
It can be concluded that all tested fertilizers displayed short-term effects on wheat seeds germination, which can be avoided by applying fertilizer at least 20 days prior to the sowing. It seems to fertilize soil 20–30 days before sowing, can reduce the adverse effect of the substances that responsible for delayed germination in non-digested, digested poultry manure and urea. However, the early application of fertilizers, especially digestate, may cause the loss of nutrients such as N in the form of ammonia. Therefore, further work remains to evaluate the effect of prolonging the period between applications and sowing on wheat growth and yield.
Notes
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to Sabha University for providing equipment and chemicals for the research.
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