Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

Manganese (Mn) and Iron (Fe): Interdependency of Transport and Regulation

Neurotoxicity Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Manganese (Mn) and iron (Fe) are transition metals that are crucial to the appropriate growth, development, function, and maintenance of biological organisms. Because of their chemical similarity, in organisms ranging from bacteria to mammals they share and compete for many protein transporters, such as the divalent metal transporter-1. As such, during conditions of low Fe, abnormal Mn accumulation occurs. Conversely, when Mn concentrations are altered, the homeostasis and deposition of Fe and other transition metals are disrupted. Our lab has undertaken a series of studies in rats involving pregnant dams, neo- and perinatal pups, and adult animals. Animals were exposed to various concentrations of dietary Fe and/or Mn, and protein transporter expression, blood Mn and Fe concentrations, brain transition metal concentrations, and temporal brain deposition patterns were examined. As a result, we have demonstrated the importance of the interdependence of the transport of Mn and Fe, and established brain metal concentrations in several longitudinal studies. The purpose of this review is to examine these studies in their entirety and highlight the importance of monitoring the deposition and accumulation of both Mn and Fe when designing future studies related to either dietary or environmental changes in transition metal levels. Finally, this review will provide information about various transport proteins currently under investigation in the research community related to Fe and Mn regulation and transport.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

References

  • Abbott PJ (1987) Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl (MMT) in petrol: the toxicological issues. Sci Total Environ 67:247–255

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson JG, Cooney PT, Erikson KM (2007a) Brain manganese accumulation is inversely related to gamma-amino butyric acid uptake in male and female rats. Toxicol Sci 95:188–195

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson JG, Cooney PT, Erikson KM (2007b) Inhibition of DAT function attenuates manganese accumulation in the globus pallidus. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 23:179–184

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson JG, Fordahl SC, Cooney PT, Weaver TL, Colyer CL, Erikson KM (2008) Manganese exposure alters extracellular GABA, GABA receptor and transporter protein and mRNA levels in the developing rat brain. Neurotoxicology 29:1044–1053

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson JG, Fordahl SC, Cooney PT, Weaver TL, Colyer CL, Erikson KM (2009) Extracellular norepinephrine, norepinephrine receptor and transporter protein and mRNA levels are differentially altered in the developing rat brain due to dietary iron deficiency and manganese exposure. Brain Res 1281:1–14

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Au C, Benedetto A, Aschner M (2008) Manganese transport in eukaryotes: the role of DMT1. Neurotoxicology 29:569–576

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aydemir F, Jenkitkasemwong S, Gulec S, Knutson MD (2009) Iron loading increases ferroportin heterogeneous nuclear RNA and mRNA levels in murine J774 macrophages. J Nutr 139:434–438

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bader M, Dietz MC, Ihrig A, Triebig G (1999) Biomonitoring of manganese in blood, urine and axillary hair following low-dose exposure during the manufacture of dry cell batteries. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 72:521–527

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beard JL, Dawson HD (1997) Iron. In: O’Dell BL, Sunde RA (eds) Handbook of nutritionally essential minerals. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, pp 275–334

    Google Scholar 

  • Beaton MD, Adams PC (2007) The myths and realities of hemochromatosis. Can J Gastroenterol 21:101–104

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bowler RM, Koller W, Schulz PE (2006) Parkinsonism due to manganism in a welder: neurological and neuropsychological sequelae. Neurotoxicology 27:327–332

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brazier MW, Davies P, Player E, Marken F, Viles JH, Brown DR (2008) Manganese binding to the prion protein. J Biol Chem 283:12831–12839

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown DR (1999) Prion protein expression aids cellular uptake and veratridine-induced release of copper. J Neurosci Res 58:717–725

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown DR, Qin K, Herms JW, Madlung A, Manson J, Strome R, Fraser PE, Kruck T, von Bohlen A, Schulz-Schaeffer W, Giese A, Westaway D, Kretzschmar H (1997) The cellular prion protein binds copper in vivo. Nature 390:684–687

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown DR, Wong BS, Hafiz F, Clive C, Haswell SJ, Jones IM (1999) Normal prion protein has an activity like that of superoxide dismutase. Biochem J 344(Pt 1):1–5

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown DR, Hafiz F, Glasssmith LL, Wong BS, Jones IM, Clive C, Haswell SJ (2000) Consequences of manganese replacement of copper for prion protein function and proteinase resistance. EMBO J 19:1180–1186

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burdo JR, Antonetti DA, Wolpert EB, Connor JR (2003) Mechanisms and regulation of transferrin and iron transport in a model blood-brain barrier system. Neuroscience 121:883–890

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Caramelli M, Ru G, Acutis P, Forloni G (2006) Prion diseases: current understanding of epidemiology and pathogenesis, and therapeutic advances. CNS Drugs 20:15–28

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Caughey B, Chesebro B (1997) Prion protein and the transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. Trends Cell Biol 7:56–62

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chebassier N, El Houssein O, Viegas I, Dreno B (2004) In vitro induction of matrix metalloproteinase-2 and matrix metalloproteinase-9 expression in keratinocytes by boron and manganese. Exp Dermatol 13:484–490

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Choi CJ, Kanthasamy A, Anantharam V, Kanthasamy AG (2006) Interaction of metals with prion protein: possible role of divalent cations in the pathogenesis of prion diseases. Neurotoxicology 27:777–787

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chua A, Morgan E (1997) Manganese metabolism is impaired in the Belgrade laboratory rat. J Comp Physiol B 167:361–369

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper WC (1984) The health implications of increased manganese in the environment resulting from the combustion of fuel additives: a review of the literature. J Toxicol Environ Health 14:23–46

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Benoist B, McLean E, Egli I, Cogswell M (eds) (2008) Worldwide prevalence of anaemia: 1993–2005. World Health Organization, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • De Domenico I, Ward DM, Nemeth E, Vaughn MB, Musci G, Ganz T, Kaplan J (2005) The molecular basis of ferroportin-linked hemochromatosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102:8955–8960

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Domenico I, Ward DM, Langelier C, Vaughn MB, Nemeth E, Sundquist WI, Ganz T, Musci G, Kaplan J (2007) The molecular mechanism of hepcidin-mediated ferroportin down-regulation. Mol Biol Cell 18:2569–2578

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Domenico I, Lo E, Ward DM, Kaplan J (2009) Hepcidin-induced internalization of ferroportin requires binding and cooperative interaction with Jak2. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106:3800–3805

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Finkelstein Y, Zhang N, Fitsanakis VA, Avison MJ, Gore JC, Aschner M (2008) Differential deposition of manganese in the rat brain following subchronic exposure to manganese: a T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging study. Isr Med Assoc J 10:793–798

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fitsanakis VA, Zhang N, Anderson JG, Erikson KM, Avison MJ, Gore JC, Aschner M (2008) Measuring brain manganese and iron accumulation in rats following 14 weeks of low-dose manganese treatment using atomic absorption spectroscopy and magnetic resonance imaging. Toxicol Sci 103:116–124

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fitsanakis VA, Thompson KN, Deery SE, Milatovic D, Shihabi ZK, Erikson KM, Brown RW, Aschner M (2009) A chronic iron-deficient/high-manganese diet in rodents results in increased brain oxidative stress and behavioral deficits in the morris water maze. Neurotox Res 15:167–178

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fleming MD, Trenor CC III, Su MA, Foernzler D, Beier DR, Dietrich WF, Andrews NC (1997) Microcytic anaemia mice have a mutation in Nramp2, a candidate iron transporter gene. Nat Genet 16:383–386

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garcia Avila M, Penalver Ballina R (1953) Manganese poisoning in the mines of Cuba. Ind Med Surg 22:220–221

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garcia SJ, Gellein K, Syversen T, Aschner M (2006) A manganese-enhanced diet alters brain metals and transporters in the developing rat. Toxicol Sci 92:516–525

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garcia SJ, Gellein K, Syversen T, Aschner M (2007) Iron deficient and manganese supplemented diets alter metals and transporters in the developing rat brain. Toxicol Sci 95:205–214

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garrick M, Dolan K, Horbinski C, Ghio A, Higgins D, Porubcin M, Moore E, Hainsworth L, Umbreit J, Conrad M, Feng L, Lis A, Roth J, Singleton S, Garrick L (2003) DMT1: a mammalian transporter for multiple metals. Biometals 16:41–54

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ge XH, Wang Q, Qian ZM, Zhu L, Du F, Yung WH, Yang L, Ke Y (2009) The iron regulatory hormone hepcidin reduces ferroportin 1 content and iron release in H9C2 cardiomyocytes. J Nutr Biochem 20(11):860–865

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gregus Z (2008) Mechanisms of toxicity. In: Klassen CD (ed) Casarett and Doull’s toxicology: the basic science of poison. McGraw-Hill Medical, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Guilarte TR, Chen MK (2007) Manganese inhibits NMDA receptor channel function: implications to psychiatric and cognitive effects. Neurotoxicology 28:1147–1152

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guilarte TR, Chen MK, McGlothan JL, Verina T, Wong DF, Zhou Y, Alexander M, Rohde CA, Syversen T, Decamp E, Koser AJ, Fritz S, Gonczi H, Anderson DW, Schneider JS (2006) Nigrostriatal dopamine system dysfunction and subtle motor deficits in manganese-exposed non-human primates. Exp Neurol 202:381–390

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gunshin H, Mackenzie B, Berger U, Gunshin Y, Romero M, Boron W, Nussberger S, Gollan J, Hediger M (1997) Cloning and characterization of a mammalian proton-coupled metal-ion transporter. Nature 388:482–488

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gunter TE, Gavin CE, Gunter KK (2009) The case for manganese interaction with mitochondria. Neurotoxicology 30:727–729

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hansen SL, Trakooljul N, Liu HC, Moeser AJ, Spears JW (2009) Iron transporters are differentially regulated by dietary iron, and modifications are associated with changes in manganese metabolism in young pigs. J Nutr 139:1474–1479

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jarrah SS, Halabi JO, Bond AE, Abegglen J (2007) Iron deficiency anemia (IDA) perceptions and dietary iron intake among young women and pregnant women in Jordan. J Transcult Nurs 18:19–27

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jensen LT, Carroll MC, Hall MD, Harvey CJ, Beese SE, Culotta VC (2009) Down-regulation of a manganese transporter in the face of metal toxicity. Mol Biol Cell 20:2810–2819

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jouihan HA, Cobine PA, Cooksey RC, Hoagland EA, Boudina S, Abel ED, Winge DR, McClain DA (2008) Iron-mediated inhibition of mitochondrial manganese uptake mediates mitochondrial dysfunction in a mouse model of hemochromatosis. Mol Med 14:98–108

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jursa T, Smith DR (2009) Ceruloplasmin alters the tissue disposition and neurotoxicity of manganese, but not its loading onto transferrin. Toxicol Sci 107:182–193

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaisman-Elbaz T, Sekler I, Fishman D, Karol N, Forberg M, Kahn N, Hershfinkel M, Silverman WF (2009) Cell death induced by zinc and cadmium is mediated by clusterin in cultured mouse seminiferous tubules. J Cell Physiol 220:222–229

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kohgo Y, Ikuta K, Ohtake T, Torimoto Y, Kato J (2008) Body iron metabolism and pathophysiology of iron overload. Int J Hematol 88:7–15

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kralovicova S, Fontaine SN, Alderton A, Alderman J, Ragnarsdottir KV, Collins SJ, Brown DR (2009) The effects of prion protein expression on metal metabolism. Mol Cell Neurosci 41:135–147

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leach R, Harris E (1997) Manganese. In: O’Dell B, Sunde R (eds) Handbook of nutritionally essential minerals. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, pp 335–355

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee PL, Beutler E (2009) Regulation of hepcidin and iron-overload disease. Annu Rev Pathol 4:489–515

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liu NQ, Xu Q, Hou XL, Liu PS, Chai ZF, Zhu L, Zhao ZY, Wang ZH, Li YF (2001) The distribution patterns of trace elements in the brain and erythrocytes in a rat experimental model of iodine deficiency. Brain Res Bull 55:309–312

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Macedo MF, de Sousa M (2008) Transferrin and the transferrin receptor: of magic bullets and other concerns. Inflamm Allergy Drug Targets 7:41–52

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Malhotra KM, Murthy RC, Srivastava RS, Chandra SV (1984) Concurrent exposure of lead and manganese to iron-deficient rats: effect on lipid peroxidation and contents of some metals in the brain. J Appl Toxicol 4:22–25

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mathews CK, van Holde KE, Ahern KG (eds) (2000) Electron transport, oxidative phosphorylation, and oxygen metabolism. Biochemistry. Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, pp 522–559

  • Mena NP, Esparza AL, Nunez MT (2006) Regulation of transepithelial transport of iron by hepcidin. Biol Res 39:191–193

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mena NP, Esparza A, Tapia V, Valdes P, Nunez MT (2008) Hepcidin inhibits apical iron uptake in intestinal cells. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 294:G192–G198

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miao L, St Clair DK (2009) Regulation of superoxide dismutase genes: implications in disease. Free Radic Biol Med 47(4):344–356

    Google Scholar 

  • Mims MP, Prchal JT (2005) Divalent metal transporter 1. Hematology 10:339–345

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miyayama T, Suzuki KT, Ogra Y (2009) Copper accumulation and compartmentalization in mouse fibroblast lacking metallothionein and copper chaperone, Atox1. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 237:205–213

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moos T (2002) Brain iron homeostasis. Dan Med Bull 49:279–301

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Muckenthaler MU, Galy B, Hentze MW (2008) Systemic iron homeostasis and the iron-responsive element/iron-regulatory protein (IRE/IRP) regulatory network. Annu Rev Nutr 28:197–213

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Murthy RC, Srivastava RS, Chandra SV (1981) Serum ceruloplasmin in manganese-treated rats. Toxicol Lett 7:217–220

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Myers JE, teWaterNaude J, Fourie M, Zogoe HB, Naik I, Theodorou P, Tassel H, Daya A, Thompson ML (2003a) Nervous system effects of occupational manganese exposure on South African manganese mineworkers. Neurotoxicology 24:649–656

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Myers JE, Thompson ML, Naik I, Theodorou P, Esswein E, Tassell H, Daya A, Renton K, Spies A, Paicker J, Young T, Jeebhay M, Ramushu S, London L, Rees DJ (2003b) The utility of biological monitoring for manganese in ferroalloy smelter workers in South Africa. Neurotoxicology 24:875–883

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Myers JE, Thompson ML, Ramushu S, Young T, Jeebhay MF, London L, Esswein E, Renton K, Spies A, Boulle A, Naik I, Iregren A, Rees DJ (2003c) The nervous system effects of occupational exposure on workers in a South African manganese smelter. Neurotoxicology 24:885–894

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Neilson F (2006) Boron, manganese, molybdenum and other trace elements. In: Bowman B, Russell R (eds) Present knowledge in nutrition, vol 2. International Life Sciences Institute, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Park JD, Chung YH, Kim CY, Ha CS, Yang SO, Khang HS, Yu IK, Cheong HK, Lee JS, Song CW, Kwon IH, Han JH, Sung JH, Heo JD, Choi BS, Im R, Jeong J, Yu IJ (2007) Comparison of high MRI T1 signals with manganese concentration in brains of cynomolgus monkeys after 8 months of stainless steel welding-fume exposure. Inhal Toxicol 19:965–971

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peters JL, Dufner-Beattie J, Xu W, Geiser J, Lahner B, Salt DE, Andrews GK (2007) Targeting of the mouse Slc39a2 (Zip2) gene reveals highly cell-specific patterns of expression, and unique functions in zinc, iron, and calcium homeostasis. Genesis 45:339–352

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pocchiari M, Poleggi A, Principe S, Graziano S, Cardone F (2009) Genomic and post-genomic analyses of human prion diseases. Genome Med 1:63

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rondon LJ, Rayssiguier Y, Mazur A (2008) Dietary inulin in mice stimulates Mg2+ absorption and modulates TRPM6 and TRPM7 expression in large intestine and kidney. Magnes Res 21:224–231

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rossi E (2005) Hepcidin—the iron regulatory hormone. Clin Biochem Rev 26:47–49

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rouault TA, Cooperman S (2006) Brain iron metabolism. Semin Pediatr Neurol 13:142–148

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sakai T, Miki F, Wariishi M, Yamamoto S (2004) Comparative study of zinc, copper, manganese, and iron concentrations in organs of zinc-deficient rats and rats treated neonatally with l-monosodium glutamate. Biol Trace Elem Res 97:163–182

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt PJ, Toran PT, Giannetti AM, Bjorkman PJ, Andrews NC (2008) The transferrin receptor modulates Hfe-dependent regulation of hepcidin expression. Cell Metab 7:205–214

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Singh A, Isaac AO, Luo X, Mohan ML, Cohen ML, Chen F, Kong Q, Bartz J, Singh N (2009a) Abnormal brain iron homeostasis in human and animal prion disorders. PLoS Pathog 5:e1000336

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Singh A, Kong Q, Luo X, Petersen RB, Meyerson H, Singh N (2009b) Prion protein (PrP) knock-out mice show altered iron metabolism: a functional role for PrP in iron uptake and transport. PLoS One 4:e6115

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Singh A, Mohan ML, Isaac AO, Luo X, Petrak J, Vyoral D, Singh N (2009c) Prion protein modulates cellular iron uptake: a novel function with implications for prion disease pathogenesis. PLoS One 4:e4468

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Skalicky A, Meyers AF, Adams WG, Yang Z, Cook JT, Frank DA (2006) Child food insecurity and iron deficiency anemia in low-income infants and toddlers in the United States. Matern Child Health J 10:177–185

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sung JH, Kim CY, Yang SO, Khang HS, Cheong HK, Lee JS, Song CW, Park JD, Han JH, Chung YH, Choi BS, Kwon IH, Cho MH, Yu IJ (2007) Changes in blood manganese concentration and MRI t1 relaxation time during 180 days of stainless steel welding-fume exposure in cynomolgus monkeys. Inhal Toxicol 19:47–55

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Toteja GS, Singh P, Dhillon BS, Saxena BN, Ahmed FU, Singh RP, Prakash B, Vijayaraghavan K, Singh Y, Rauf A, Sarma UC, Gandhi S, Behl L, Mukherjee K, Swami SS, Meru V, Chandra P, Chandrawati, Mohan U (2006) Prevalence of anemia among pregnant women and adolescent girls in 16 districts of India. Food Nutr Bull 27:311–315

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang X, Li GJ, Zheng W (2008) Efflux of iron from the cerebrospinal fluid to the blood at the blood-CSF barrier: effect of manganese exposure. Exp Biol Med 233:1561–1571

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • WHO (2003) Micronutrient deficiencies: battling iron deficiency anaemia, vol 2003. WHO

  • Wood RJ (2009) Manganese and birth outcome. Nutr Rev 67:416–420

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yang F, Friedrichs WE, Coalson JJ (1997) Regulation of transferrin gene expression during lung development and injury. Am J Physiol 273:L417–L426

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang DL, Hughes RM, Ollivierre-Wilson H, Ghosh MC, Rouault TA (2009a) A ferroportin transcript that lacks an iron-responsive element enables duodenal and erythroid precursor cells to evade translational repression. Cell Metab 9:461–473

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang N, Fitsanakis VA, Erikson KM, Aschner M, Avison MJ, Gore JC (2009b) A model for the analysis of competitive relaxation effects of manganese and iron in vivo. NMR Biomed 22:391–404

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou SJ, Gibson RA, Crowther CA, Baghurst P, Makrides M (2006) Effect of iron supplementation during pregnancy on the intelligence quotient and behavior of children at 4 y of age: long-term follow-up of a randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr 83:1112–1117

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgment

This study was partially supported by NIEHS 015628 (V.A.F.), NIEHS 10563 (M.A.), and DoD W81XWH-05-1-0239 (M.A.).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Michael Aschner.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Fitsanakis, V.A., Zhang, N., Garcia, S. et al. Manganese (Mn) and Iron (Fe): Interdependency of Transport and Regulation. Neurotox Res 18, 124–131 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12640-009-9130-1

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12640-009-9130-1

Keywords

Navigation