Cardiovascular Health in Africans Living in the United States
- 218 Downloads
- 2 Citations
Abstract
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death globally as well as in the United States. African-born immigrants comprise one of the fastest growing immigrant groups in the United States. Despite differences in culture, lifestyle, psychosocial issues, diet, and birth environment, African-born immigrants are often categorized with African Americans and other foreign-born blacks in studies attempting to define CVD risk in blacks. This review examines the very few studies that have attempted to separately characterize the cardiovascular health of this unique group, particularly as it relates to the African continent. Concurrently, cardiovascular disease and risk factors are compared between African-born immigrants and African Americans—the larger umbrella term that covers most persons of African descent in the United States, regardless of place of birth.
Keywords
Africans in the U.S. African Americans Immigrants Persons of African descent Foreign-born blacks Cardiovascular disease Risk factors Health HypertensionNotes
Disclosure
No conflicts of interest relevant to this article were reported.
References
Papers of particular interest, published recently, have been highlighted as: •Of importance ••Of major importance
- 1.• Lloyd-Jones D, Adams RJ, Brown TM, Carnethon M, Dai S, De Simone G, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics—2010 update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2010;121:e46–e215. This is a review of heart disease and stroke statistics in the United States.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 2.Grieco EM. Race and hispanic origin of foreign-born population in the United States: 2007. 2010:1–15Google Scholar
- 3.•• Venters H, Gany F. African immigrant health. J Immigr Minor Health. 2011;13:333–44. This article is a stellar review of the general health of African immigrants in the United States.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 4.•• Agyemang C, Addo J, Bhopal R, Aikins Ade G, Stronks K. Cardiovascular disease, diabetes and established risk factors among populations of sub-Saharan African descent in Europe: a literature review. Glob Health. 2009;5:7. This article provides an extensive review of the cardiovascular health of African immigrants in Europe.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 5.Traven ND, Kuller LH, Ives DG, Rutan GH, Perper JA. Coronary heart disease mortality and sudden death among the 35–44-year age group in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania. Ann Epidemiol. 1996;6:130–6.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 6.Trends in ischemic heart disease death rates for blacks and whites—United States, 1981–1995. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1998;47:945–9Google Scholar
- 7.Watson KE. Cardiovascular risk reduction among African Americans: a call to action. J Natl Med Assoc. 2008;100:18–26.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- 8.Yatsuya H, Folsom AR, Yamagishi K, North KE, Brancati FL, Stevens J. Race- and sex-specific associations of obesity measures with ischemic stroke incidence in the atherosclerosis risk in communities (ARIC) study. Stroke; J Cereb Circ. 2010;41:417–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 9.Glymour MM, Avendano M, Haas S, Berkman LF. Lifecourse social conditions and racial disparities in incidence of first stroke. Ann Epidemiol. 2008;18:904–12.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 10.Wild SH, Fischbacher C, Brock A, Griffiths C, Bhopal R. Mortality from all causes and circulatory disease by country of birth in England and Wales 2001–2003. J Public Health (Oxf). 2007;29:191–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 11.Singh GK, Miller BA. Health, life expectancy, and mortality patterns among immigrant populations in the United States. Can J Public Health. 2004;95:I14–21.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- 12.Singh GK, Hiatt RA. Trends and disparities in socioeconomic and behavioural characteristics, life expectancy, and cause-specific mortality of native-born and foreign-born populations in the United States, 1979–2003. Int J Epidemiol. 2006;35:903–19.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 13.Lucas JW, Barr-Anderson DJ, Kington RS. Health status, health insurance, and health care utilization patterns of immigrant black men. Am J Public Health. 2003;93:1740–7.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 14.Lanska DJ. Geographic distribution of stroke mortality among immigrants to the United States. Stroke J Cereb Circ. 1997;28:53–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 15.Lancaster KJ, Watts SO, Dixon LB. Dietary intake and risk of coronary heart disease differ among ethnic subgroups of black Americans. J Nutr. 2006;136:446–51.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- 16.Schuster DP, Gaillard T, Osei K. The cardiometabolic syndrome in persons of the African diaspora: challenges and opportunities. J Cardiometab Syndr. 2007;2:260–6.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 17.Read JG, Emerson MO, Tarlov A. Implications of black immigrant health for U.S. Racial disparities in health. J Immigr Health. 2005;7:205–12.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 18.Steyn K, Sliwa K, Hawken S, Commerford P, Onen C, Damasceno A, et al. Risk factors associated with myocardial infarction in Africa: the interheart Africa study. Circulation. 2005;112:3554–61.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 19.Vasan RS, Beiser A, Seshadri S, Larson MG, Kannel WB, D’Agostino RB, et al. Residual lifetime risk for developing hypertension in middle-aged women and men: the Framingham heart study. JAMA. 2002;287:1003–10.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 20.• Roger VL, Go AS, Lloyd-Jones DM, Adams RJ, Berry JD, Brown TM, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics—2011 update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2011;123:e18–e209. This is the most recent review of heart disease and stroke statistics in the United States.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 21.• Glasser SP, Judd S, Basile J, Lackland D, Halanych J, Cushman M, et al. Prehypertension, racial prevalence and its association with risk factors: analysis of the reasons for geographic and racial differences in stroke (regards) study. Am J Hypertens. 2011;24:194–9. This is an excellent analysis on the effects of hypertension on cardiovascular risk and disease, separated by race and geographic region.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 22.Harding S, Whitrow M, Lenguerrand E, Maynard M, Teyhan A, Cruickshank JK, et al. Emergence of ethnic differences in blood pressure in adolescence: the determinants of adolescent social well-being and health study. Hypertension. 2010;55:1063–9.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 23.Park IU, Taylor AL. Race and ethnicity in trials of antihypertensive therapy to prevent cardiovascular outcomes: a systematic review. Ann Fam Med. 2007;5:444–52.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 24.Hyman DJ, Ogbonnaya K, Pavlik VN, Poston WS, Ho K. Lower hypertension prevalence in first-generation African immigrants compared to US-born African Americans. Ethn Dis. 2000;10:343–9.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- 25.Hicks LS, Fairchild DG, Cook EF, Ayanian JZ. Association of region of residence and immigrant status with hypertension, renal failure, cardiovascular disease, and stroke, among African-American participants in the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III). Ethn Dis. 2003;13:316–23.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- 26.Cooper R, Rotimi C, Ataman S, McGee D, Osotimehin B, Kadiri S, et al. The prevalence of hypertension in seven populations of West African origin. Am J Public Health. 1997;87:160–8.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 27.Cooper RS, Wolf-Maier K, Luke A, Adeyemo A, Banegas JR, Forrester T, et al. An international comparative study of blood pressure in populations of European vs. African descent. BMC Med. 2005;3:2.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 28.•• Ukegbu UJ, Castillo DC, Knight MG, Ricks M, Miller 3rd BV, Onumah BM, et al. Metabolic syndrome does not detect metabolic risk in African men living in the U.S. Diabetes Care. 2011;34:2297–9. One of the very few studies that focuses on Africans living in the United States, this study calls for a new defintion of the metabolic syndrome in persons of African descent.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 29.Okosun IS, Forrester TE, Rotimi CN, Osotimehin BO, Muna WF, Cooper RS. Abdominal adiposity in six populations of West African descent: prevalence and population attributable fraction of hypertension. Obes Res. 1999;7:453–62.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- 30.Kaufman JS, Durazo-Arvizu RA, Rotimi CN, McGee DL, Cooper RS. Obesity and hypertension prevalence in populations of african origin. The investigators of the international collaborative study on hypertension in blacks. Epidemiology. 1996;7:398–405.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 31.Cappuccio FP, Kerry SM, Adeyemo A, Luke A, Amoah AG, Bovet P, et al. Body size and blood pressure: an analysis of Africans and the African diaspora. Epidemiology. 2008;19:38–46.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 32.Young JH, Chang YP, Kim JD, Chretien JP, Klag MJ, Levine MA, et al. Differential susceptibility to hypertension is due to selection during the out-of-Africa expansion. PLoS Genet. 2005;1:e82.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 33.Tayo BO, Luke A, McKenzie CA, Kramer H, Cao G, Durazo-Arvizu R, et al. Patterns of sodium and potassium excretion and blood pressure in the African diaspora. J Hum Hypertens. 2011.Google Scholar
- 34.Klimentidis YC, Dulin-Keita A, Casazza K, Willig AL, Allison DB, Fernandez JR. Genetic admixture, social-behavioural factors and body composition are associated with blood pressure differently by racial-ethnic group among children. J Hum Hypertens. 2011Google Scholar
- 35.Daniel HI, Rotimi CN. Genetic epidemiology of hypertension: an update on the African diaspora. Ethn Dis. 2003;13:S53–66.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- 36.Sacks FM, Svetkey LP, Vollmer WM, Appel LJ, Bray GA, Harsha D, et al. Effects on blood pressure of reduced dietary sodium and the dietary approaches to stop hypertension (DASH) diet. Dash-sodium collaborative research group. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:3–10.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 37.Kelsey RM, Alpert BS, Patterson SM, Barnard M. Racial differences in hemodynamic responses to environmental thermal stress among adolescents. Circulation. 2000;101:2284–9.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- 38.Adamopoulos D, Ngatchou W, Lemogoum D, Janssen C, Beloka S, Lheureux O, et al. Intensified large artery and microvascular response to cold adrenergic stimulation in African blacks. Am J Hypertens. 2009;22:958–63.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 39.Treiber FA, Musante L, Braden D, Arensman F, Strong WB, Levy M, et al. Racial differences in hemodynamic responses to the cold face stimulus in children and adults. Psychosom Med. 1990;52:286–96.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- 40.Berenson GS, Chen W, Dasmahapatra P, Fernandez C, Giles T, Xu J, et al. Stimulus response of blood pressure in black and white young individuals helps explain racial divergence in adult cardiovascular disease: the Bogalusa heart study. J Am Soc Hypertens. 2011;5:230–8.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 41.Rotimi C, Puras A, Cooper R, McFarlane-Anderson N, Forrester T, Ogunbiyi O, et al. Polymorphisms of renin-angiotensin genes among Nigerians, Jamaicans, and African Americans. Hypertension. 1996;27:558–63.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- 42.Forrester T. Historic and early life origins of hypertension in Africans. J Nutr. 2004;134:211–6.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- 43.Singh GK, Yu SM. Adverse pregnancy outcomes: differences between US- and foreign-born women in major US racial and ethnic groups. Am J Public Health. 1996;86:837–43.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 44.Brancati FL, Kao WH, Folsom AR, Watson RL, Szklo M. Incident type 2 diabetes mellitus in African American and white adults: the atherosclerosis risk in communities study. J Am Med Assoc. 2000;283:2253–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 45.Bindraban NR, van Valkengoed IG, Mairuhu G, Holleman F, Hoekstra JB, Michels BP, et al. Prevalence of diabetes mellitus and the performance of a risk score among Hindustani Surinamese, African Surinamese and ethnic Dutch: a cross-sectional population-based study. BMC Publ Health. 2008;8:271.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 46.Creatore MI, Moineddin R, Booth G, Manuel DH, DesMeules M, McDermott S, et al. Age- and sex-related prevalence of diabetes mellitus among immigrants to Ontario, Canada. Can Med Assoc J. 2010;182:781–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 47.Cooper RS, Rotimi CN, Kaufman JS, Owoaje EE, Fraser H, Forrester T, et al. Prevalence of NIDDM among populations of the African diaspora. Diabetes Care. 1997;20:343–8.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 48.Medalie JH, Papier CM, Goldbourt U, Herman JB. Major factors in the development of diabetes mellitus in 10,000 men. Arch Intern Med. 1975;135:811–7.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 49.Uitewaal PJ, Manna DR, Bruijnzeels MA, Hoes AW, Thomas S. Prevalence of type 2 diabetes mellitus, other cardiovascular risk factors, and cardiovascular disease in Turkish and Moroccan immigrants in North West Europe: a systematic review. Prev Med. 2004;39:1068–76.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 50.Vangen S, Stoltenberg C, Holan S, Moe N, Magnus P, Harris JR, et al. Outcome of pregnancy among immigrant women with diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2003;26:327–32.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 51.Elbein SC. Genetics factors contributing to type 2 diabetes across ethnicities. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2009;3:685–9.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- 52.Johnson EB, Reed SD, Hitti J, Batra M. Increased risk of adverse pregnancy outcome among Somali immigrants in Washington state. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2005;193:475–82.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 53.• Wieland ML, Morrison TB, Cha SS, Rahman AS, Chaudhry R. Diabetes care among somali immigrants and refugees. J Commun Health. 2011. This is one of the very few studies that focuses on place of birth and social conditions, as well as prevailing culture and how it affects the care of diabetes and CVD in general. Google Scholar
- 54.Abubakari AR, Bhopal RS. Systematic review on the prevalence of diabetes, overweight/obesity and physical inactivity in Ghanaians and Nigerians. Public Health. 2008;122:173–82.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 55.Oldroyd J, Banerjee M, Heald A, Cruickshank K. Diabetes and ethnic minorities. Postgrad Med J. 2005;81:486–90.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 56.Zoratti R, Godsland IF, Chaturvedi N, Crook D, Stevenson JC, McKeigue PM. Relation of plasma lipids to insulin resistance, nonesterified fatty acid levels, and body fat in men from three ethnic groups: relevance to variation in risk of diabetes and coronary disease. Metab Clin Exp. 2000;49:245–52.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 57.Miljkovic-Gacic I, Gordon CL, Goodpaster BH, Bunker CH, Patrick AL, Kuller LH, et al. Adipose tissue infiltration in skeletal muscle: age patterns and association with diabetes among men of African ancestry. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008;87:1590–5.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- 58.• Nielsen J, Christensen DL. Glucose intolerance in the west african diaspora: a skeletal muscle fibre type distribution hypothesis. Acta Physiol (Oxf). 2011;202:605–16. This article attempts to define the pathophysiology of diabetes in persons of African descent.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 59.• Sumner AE, Zhou J, Doumatey A, Imoisili OE, Amoah A, Acheampong J, et al. Low HDL-cholesterol with normal triglyceride levels is the most common lipid pattern in West Africans and African Americans with metabolic syndrome: implications for cardiovascular disease prevention. CVD Prev Control. 2010;5:75–80. This study compares risk factors for the metabolic syndrome in Africans with those for African Americans. It calls for a new defintion of the metabolic syndrome in persons of African descent.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 60.Cappuccio FP. Ethnicity and cardiovascular risk: variations in people of African ancestry and South Asian origin. J Hum Hypertens. 1997;11:571–6.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 61.Holvoet P, Jenny NS, Schreiner PJ, Tracy RP, Jacobs DR. The relationship between oxidized LDL and other cardiovascular risk factors and subclinical CVD in different ethnic groups: the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis (MESA). Atherosclerosis. 2007;194:245–52.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 62.Kullo IJ, Jan MF, Bailey KR, Mosley TH, Turner ST. Ethnic differences in low-density lipoprotein particle size in hypertensive adults. J Clin Lipidol. 2007;1:218–24.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 63.Aiyer AN, Kip KE, Marroquin OC, Mulukutla SR, Edmundowicz D, Reis SE. Racial differences in coronary artery calcification are not attributed to differences in lipoprotein particle sizes: the heart strategies concentrating on risk evaluation (heart score) study. Am Heart J. 2007;153:328–34.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 64.Rotimi CN, Cooper RS, Marcovina SM, McGee D, Owoaje E, Ladipo M. Serum distribution of lipoprotein(a) in African Americans and Nigerians: potential evidence for a genotype-environmental effect. Genet Epidemiol. 1997;14:157–68.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 65.Koya DL, Egede LE. Association between length of residence and cardiovascular disease risk factors among an ethnically diverse group of United States immigrants. J Gen Intern Med. 2007;22:841–6.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 66.Bennett GG, Wolin KY, Askew S, Fletcher R, Emmons KM. Immigration and obesity among lower income blacks. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2007;15:1391–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 67.Luke A, Durazo-Arvizu RA, Rotimi CN, Iams H, Schoeller DA, Adeyemo AA, et al. Activity energy expenditure and adiposity among black adults in Nigeria and the United States. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002;75:1045–50.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- 68.Luke A, Dugas L, Kramer H. Ethnicity, energy expenditure and obesity: are the observed black/white differences meaningful? Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes. 2007;14:370–3.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 69.• Guthold R, Louazani SA, Riley LM, Cowan MJ, Bovet P, Damasceno A, et al. Physical activity in 22 African countries: results from the world health organization stepwise approach to chronic disease risk factor surveillance. Am J Prev Med. 2011;41:52–60. This is an extensive study of physical activity in Africans.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 70.Holdsworth M, Gartner A, Landais E, Maire B, Delpeuch F. Perceptions of healthy and desirable body size in urban Senegalese women. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2004;28:1561–8.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 71.Miljkovic I, Cauley JA, Petit MA, Ensrud KE, Strotmeyer E, Sheu Y, et al. Greater adipose tissue infiltration in skeletal muscle among older men of African ancestry. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009;94:2735–42.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 72.Cheng CY, Reich D, Coresh J, Boerwinkle E, Patterson N, Li M, et al. Admixture mapping of obesity-related traits in African Americans: the atherosclerosis risk in communities (ARIC) study. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2010;18:563–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 73.Bennett GG, Wolin KY, Okechukwu CA, Arthur CM, Askew S, Sorensen G, et al. Nativity and cigarette smoking among lower income blacks: results from the healthy directions study. J Immigr Minor Health. 2008;10:305–11.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 74.•• Elo IT, Culhane JF. Variations in health and health behaviors by nativity among pregnant black women in Philadelphia. Am J Public Health. 2010;100:2185–92. A thorough and extensive study, this article understands the influence of place of birth and varying culture on health, and attempts to define the health of black women based on place of birth.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 75.Dillon KA, Chase RA. Secondhand smoke exposure, awareness, and prevention among African-born women. Am J Prev Med. 2010;39:S37–43.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 76.Wolf RL, Lepore SJ, Vandergrift JL, Wetmore-Arkader L, McGinty E, Pietrzak G, et al. Knowledge, barriers, and stage of change as correlates of fruit and vegetable consumption among urban and mostly immigrant black men. J Am Diet Assoc. 2008;108:1315–22.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 77.Collins-McNeil J, Holston EC, Edwards CL, Carbage-Martin J, Benbow DL, Dixon TD. Depressive symptoms, cardiovascular risk, and diabetes self-care strategies in African American women with type 2 diabetes. Arch Psychiatr Nurs. 2007;21:201–9.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 78.• Lewis TT, Guo H, Lunos S, de Leon CF Mendes, Skarupski KA, Evans DA, et al. Depressive symptoms and cardiovascular mortality in older black and white adults: evidence for a differential association by race. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes. 2011;4:293–9. This article studies the influence of race on depressive symptoms and cardiovascular mortality.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 79.Kessler RC, Merikangas KR, Wang PS. Prevalence, comorbidity, and service utilization for mood disorders in the United States at the beginning of the twenty-first century. Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 2007;3:137–58.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 80.Wulsin LR, Singal BM. Do depressive symptoms increase the risk for the onset of coronary disease? A systematic quantitative review. Psychosom Med. 2003;65:201–10.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 81.Knox S, Barnes A, Kiefe C, Lewis CE, Iribarren C, Matthews KA, et al. History of depression, race, and cardiovascular risk in CARDIA. Int J Behav Med. 2006;13:44–50.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 82.Lewis TT, Everson-Rose SA, Colvin A, Matthews K, Bromberger JT, Sutton-Tyrrell K. Interactive effects of race and depressive symptoms on calcification in African American and white women. Psychosom Med. 2009;71:163–70.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 83.Deverts DJ, Cohen S, DiLillo VG, Lewis CE, Kiefe C, Whooley M, et al. Depressive symptoms, race, and circulating C-reactive protein: the coronary artery risk development in young adults (CARDIA) study. Psychosom Med. 2010;72:734–41.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 84.Waldman SV, Blumenthal JA, Babyak MA, Sherwood A, Sketch M, Davidson J, et al. Ethnic differences in the treatment of depression in patients with ischemic heart disease. Am Heart J. 2009;157:77–83.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 85.Miranda J, Siddique J, Belin TR, Kohn-Wood LP. Depression prevalence in disadvantaged young black women–African and Caribbean immigrants compared to US-born African Americans. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2005;40:253–8.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 86.Nadeem E, Lange JM, Edge D, Fongwa M, Belin T, Miranda J. Does stigma keep poor young immigrant and U.S.-born black and latina women from seeking mental health care? Psychiatr Serv. 2007;58:1547–54.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 87.Mukamal KJ, Chen CM, Rao SR, Breslow RA. Alcohol consumption and cardiovascular mortality among U.S. adults, 1987 to 2002. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;55:1328–35.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 88.Kerr WC, Greenfield TK, Bond J, Ye Y, Rehm J. Racial and ethnic differences in all-cause mortality risk according to alcohol consumption patterns in the national alcohol surveys. Am J Epidemiol. 2011;174:769–78.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 89.Sempos CT, Rehm J, Wu T, Crespo CJ, Trevisan M. Average volume of alcohol consumption and all-cause mortality in African Americans: the NHEFS cohort. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2003;27:88–92.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 90.Fuchs FD, Chambless LE, Folsom AR, Eigenbrodt ML, Duncan BB, Gilbert A, et al. Association between alcoholic beverage consumption and incidence of coronary heart disease in whites and blacks: the atherosclerosis risk in communities study. Am J Epidemiol. 2004;160:466–74.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 91.Pletcher MJ, Varosy P, Kiefe CI, Lewis CE, Sidney S, Hulley SB. Alcohol consumption, binge drinking, and early coronary calcification: findings from the coronary artery risk development in young adults (CARDIA) study. Am J Epidemiol. 2005;161:423–33.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 92.Chartier K, Caetano R. Ethnicity and health disparities in alcohol research. Alcohol Res Health. 2010;33:152–60.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- 93.Disease and mortality in sub-Saharan Africa. 2006Google Scholar
- 94.Wyatt SB, Akylbekova EL, Wofford MR, Coady SA, Walker ER, Andrew ME, et al. Prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension in the Jackson Heart Study. Hypertension. 2008;51:650–6.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 95.Tuomilehto J, Lindstrom J, Eriksson JG, Valle TT, Hamalainen H, Ilanne-Parikka P, et al. Prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus by changes in lifestyle among subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:1343–50.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 96.Effect of intensive blood-glucose control with metformin on complications in overweight patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 34). UK prospective diabetes study (UKPDS) group. Lancet. 1998;352:854–65Google Scholar
- 97.• Chen ST, Maruthur NM, Appel LJ. The effect of dietary patterns on estimated coronary heart disease risk: results from the dietary approaches to stop hypertension (DASH) trial. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes. 2010;3:484–9. This is a stellar study on the influences of dietary modifications on cardivascular risk.Google Scholar
- 98.Lichtman JH, Bigger Jr JT, Blumenthal JA, Frasure-Smith N, Kaufmann PG, Lesperance F, et al. Depression and coronary heart disease: recommendations for screening, referral, and treatment: a science advisory from the American Heart Association Prevention Committee of the Council on Cardiovascular Nursing, Council on Clinical Cardiology, Council on Epidemiology and Prevention, and Interdisciplinary Council on Quality of Care and Outcomes Research: endorsed by the American Psychiatric Association. Circulation. 2008;118:1768–75.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 99.A clinical practice guideline for treating tobacco use and dependence: 2008 update. A U.S. Public health service report. Am J Prev Med. 2008;35:158–76Google Scholar
- 100.Gee EM, Kobayashi KM, Prus SG. Examining the healthy immigrant effect in mid- to later life: findings from the Canadian community health survey. Can J Aging. 2004;23 Suppl 1:S61–9Google Scholar