Skip to main content
Log in

Explaining Local Swedish Refugee Policy

  • Published:
Journal of International Migration and Integration Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

In the Swedish migration system, the local level plays a crucial role since the municipalities have full autonomy to accept or decline refugees. This has created a considerable variation in numbers of immigrants among municipalities, and there is a large variation in local societies' willingness to receive refugees. In this study, we focus on all the Swedish municipalities for a time span of several years and derive from economic, demographic, socio-cultural, and explanatory factors that have been put forward in earlier research. Through quantitative analysis, we can show how income, the unemployment rate, population, and support for the right-wing party negatively vary with the willingness to receive refugees. Moreover, the distribution of income results in the opposite significant direction. These results, partly contradicting theory, show the importance of a nuanced and holistic theoretical base in further research.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. By this we mean refugees including for instance quota refugees and former asylum seekers given residence. However, this group can settle in other municipalities after admission, as can asylum seekers. This situation has placed a particularly heavy burden on some municipalities, especially in metropolitan areas that have received many immigrants through their subsequent location (Åslund 2005). Our main focus, though, is on the variation in the agreed reception of refugees, since this is determined by the municipalities.

  2. The average number of accepted refugees per 1,000 inhabitants varies from 2.65 (2006) to 2.32 (2010) per municipality, but the variation is not significant. The number of municipalities has increased from 233 in 2006 to 271 municipalities in 2010.

  3. Means calculated for regions gives the following numbers—2.30 (southern Sweden), 2.34 (central Sweden), and 3.91 (northern Sweden). Analysis of variance indicates that there is a significant difference between the regions, and the effect is 0.093 (eta squared).

  4. The spatial variation between municipalities differs significantly, while the temporal variation between years does not differ significantly.

  5. Gilljam et al. (2010, 26) find that politicians representing the Left Party are most positive toward immigration, while politicians representing the Sweden Democrats and the Moderate Party are most sceptical. Therefore, voting shares for these three parties will be included.

  6. Here, we follow Beck’s (2001) definition of time-series cross-section data as repeated observations of fixed units. Our data are characterized by a quite large N but a smaller T (N > T). However, two arguments make it possible to regard the data as time-series cross-section. First, the units are not sampled, and the total population is included in the dataset. Second, the units are of importance since they reflect specific political units.

References

  • Akkerman, T. (2012). Comparing radical right parties in government: Immigration and integration policies in nine countries (1996–2010). West European Politics, 35(3), 511–529. doi:10.1080/01402382.2012.665738.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arango, J. (2000). Explaining migration: A critical view. International Social Science Journal, 52(165), 283–296. doi:10.1111/1468-2451.00259.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Åslund, O. (2005). Now and forever? Initial and subsequent location choices of immigrants. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 35(2), 141–165. doi:10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2004.02.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, N. (2001). Time-series-cross section data: What have we learned in the past few years? Annual Review of Political Science, 4(1), 271–293. doi:10.1146/annurev.polisci.4.1.271.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, N., & Katz, J. N. (1995). What to do (and not to do) with time-series cross-section data. The American Political Science Review, 89(3), 634–647. doi:10.2307/2082979.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boräng, F. (2012). National institutions—International migration. Labour Markets, Welfare States and Immigration Policy. Gothenburg: University of Gothenburg. https://gupea.ub.gu.se/handle/2077/31638.

  • Borevi, K. (2012). “Sweden: The Flagship of Multiculturalism”. In Immigration Policy and The Scandinavian Welfare State 1945–2010, by Grete Brochmann and Anniken Hagelund. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Borg, P. (2009). Den Långsiktiga Finansieringen-Välfärdspolitikens Klimatfråga?” Expertgruppen för studier i offentlig ekonomi. Stockholm: Finansdepartementet: Regeringskansliet.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caponio, T., & Borkert, M. (Eds.). (2010). The Local Dimension of Migration Policymaking. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Castles, S., & Miller, M. J. (2003). The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World (3rd ed.). Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chimni, B. S. (2009). The Birth of a ‘Discipline’: From Refugee to Forced Migration Studies. Journal of Refugee Studies, 22(1), 11–29. doi:10.1093/jrs/fen051.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Confederation of Swedish Enterprise (2010). “Företagsklimatet i Sverige.” www.foretagsklimat.se.

  • Cornelius, W. A., & Rosenblum, M. R. (2005). Immigration and politics. Annual Review of Political Science, 8(1), 99–119. doi:10.1146/annurev.polisci.8.082103.104854.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dahl, R. A. (1989). Democracy and Its Critics. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Database for Local and County Councils (2010). “KOLADA.” www.kolada.se.

  • De Giorgi, G., & Pellizzari, M. (2009). Welfare migration in Europe. Labour Economics, 16(4), 353–363. doi:10.1016/j.labeco.2009.01.005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Vries, M. (2000). Left and right among local elites: Comparative figures from Switzerland, Spain, Germany and The Netherlands. Local Government Studies, 26(3), 91–118. doi:10.1080/03003930008434001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Demker, M. (2007). “Attitudes toward immigrants and refugees. Swedish Trends with Some Comparisons.” In Chicago, IL, USA.

  • Easton, D. (1965). Framework for Political Analysis. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Election Authority (2010). “Valresultat.” www.val.se.

  • Emilsson, H. and Hagström, M. (2009). Asylsökandes Eget Boende, EBO-En Kartläggning. Statens Offentliga Utredningar SOU 2009:99. Stockholm.

  • Eurostat (2012). “Asylum applicants and first instance decisions on asylum applications: Third quarter 2012”. 14/2012.

  • Facchini, G., & Mayda, A. M. (2008). From individual attitudes towards migrants to migration policy outcomes: Theory and evidence. Economic Policy, 23(56), 651–713. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0327.2008.00212.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Facchini, G., Mayda, A. M., & Prachi, M. (2011). Do interest groups affect US immigration policy? Journal of International Economics, 85(1), 114–128. doi:10.1016/j.jinteco.2011.05.006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Finansdepartementet. (2008). Långtidsutredningen 2008: huvudbetänkande. Stockholm: Fritzes.

    Google Scholar 

  • Finansdepartementet (2010). “Utvecklingen Inom Den Kommunala Sektorn”. Skr. 2010/11:102. Stockholm.

  • Freeman, G. P. (1994). Can liberal states control unwanted migration? Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 534(1), 17–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freeman, G. P. (2006). National models, policy types, and the politics of immigration in liberal democracies. West European Politics, 29(2), 227–247. doi:10.1080/01402380500512585.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freeman, G. P. (2011). Comparative analysis of immigration politics: A retrospective. American Behavioral Scientist, 55(12), 1541–1560. doi:10.1177/0002764211409386.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gilljam, M., Karlsson, D., & Sundell, A. (2010). Politik på hemmaplan: tiotusen fullmäktigeledamöter tycker om politik och demokrati. Stockholm: SKL Kommentus.

    Google Scholar 

  • Giugni, M., & Passy, F. (2006). “Introduction: Four Dialogues on Migration Policy”. In Dialogues on Migration Policy, edited by Marco Giugni, and Florence Passy, 1–21. Lanham: Lexington Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Givens, T. E. (2005). Voting Radical Right in Western Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Hanson, G. H., & Spilimbergo, A. (2001). Political economy, sectoral shocks, and border enforcement. Canadian Journal of Economics/Revue Canadienne D’économique, 34(3), 612–638. doi:10.1111/0008-4085.00091.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hix, S., & Noury, A. (2007). Politics, not economic interests: Determinants of migration policies in the European Union. International Migration Review, 41(1), 182–205. doi:10.1111/j.1747-7379.2007.00061.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hollifield, J., Hunt, V. F., & Tichenor, D. J. (2006). “Immigrants, Markets, and the American State: The Political Economy of U.S. Immigration”. In Dialogues on Migration Policy, edited by Marco Giugni, and Florence Passy, 91–107. Lanham: Lexington Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hooghe, M., Trappers, A., Meuleman, B., & Reeskens, T. (2008). Migration to European countries: A structural explanation of patterns, 1980–20041. International Migration Review, 42(2), 476–504. doi:10.1111/j.1747-7379.2008.00132.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ireland, P. R. (2004). Becoming Europe: Immigration, Integration, and the Welfare State. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacobsen, K. (1996). Factors influencing the policy responses of host governments to mass refugee influxes. International Migration Review, 30(3), 655–678.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Joppke, C. (1998). Why liberal states accept unwanted immigration. World Politics, 50(2), 266–293.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jørgensen, M. B. (2012). The diverging logics of integration policy making at national and city level. International Migration Review, 46(1), 244–278. doi:10.1111/j.1747-7379.2012.00886.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kadhim, A. M. (2000). Svenskt Kommunalt Flyktingmottagande: Politik Och Implementering. Akademiska Avhandlingar Vid Sociologiska Institutionen, Umeå Universitet, 1104–2508; 20. Umeå: Univ.

    Google Scholar 

  • King, R. (2002). Towards a new map of European migration. International Journal of Population Geography, 8(2), 89–106. doi:10.1002/ijpg.246.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • King, G., Keohane, R. O., & Verba, S. (1994). Designing Social Inquiry: Scientific Inference in Qualitative Research. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kitschelt, H. P. (1986). Political opportunity structures and political protest: Anti-nuclear movements in four democracies. British Journal of Political Science, 16(01), 57–85. doi:10.1017/S000712340000380X.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klevmarken, A., & Lindgren, B. (Eds.). (2008). Simulating an Ageing Population: A Microsimulation Approach Applied to Sweden. Contributions to Economic Analysis, 0573–8555; 285. Emerald: Bingley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lahav, G. (2004). Immigration and Politics in the New Europe: Reinventing Borders. Themes in European Governance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Loughlin, J. (2000). Regional autonomy and state paradigm shifts in Western Europe. Regional & Federal Studies, 10(2), 10–34. doi:10.1080/13597560008421118.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Massey, D. S. (1990). The social and economic origins of immigration. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 510(July 1), 60–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Massey, D. S., Arango, J., Hugo, G., Kouaouci, A., Pellegrino, A., & Edward Taylor, J. (1993). Theories of international migration: A review and appraisal. Population and Development Review, 19(3), 431–466. doi:10.2307/2938462.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meyers, E. (2000). Theories of international immigration policy—A comparative analysis. International Migration Review, 34(4), 1245–1282. doi:10.2307/2675981.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Minkenberg, M. (2001). The radical right in public office: Agenda–setting and policy effects. West European Politics, 24(4), 1–21. doi:10.1080/01402380108425462.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Odmalm, P. (2011). Political parties and ‘the Immigration Issue’: Issue ownership in Swedish Parliamentary Elections 1991–2010. West European Politics, 34(5), 1070–1091. doi:10.1080/01402382.2011.591098.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Piore, M. J. (1979). Birds of Passage: Migrant Labor and Industrial Societies. Cambridge: Cambridge U.P.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Qvist, M. (2012). Styrning Av Lokala Integrationsprogram. Institutioner, Nätverk Och Professionella Normer Inom Det Svenska Flyktingmottagandet. Linköping: Linköpings universitet.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, V., Andersson, R., & Musterd, S. (2003). Spreading the “Burden”?: A Review of Policies to Disperse Asylum Seekers and Refugees. Bristol: Policy.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Rokkan, S. (1970). Citizens, Elections, Parties : Approaches to the Comparative Study of the Processes of Development. Oslo: Scandinavian University Books, 99-0103642-9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rothstein, B. (2011). The Quality of Government: Corruption, Social Trust, and Inequality in International Perspective. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Rotte, R., Vogler, M., & Zimmermann, K. F. (1997). South–north refugee migration: Lessons for development cooperation. Review of Development Economics, 1(1), 99–115. doi:10.1111/1467-9361.00008.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scheve, K. F., & Slaughter, M. J. (2001). Labor market competition and individual preferences over immigration policy. Review of Economics and Statistics, 83(1), 133–145. doi:10.1162/003465301750160108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schierup, C.-U., Hansen, P., & Castles, S. (2006). Migration, Citizenship, and the European Welfare State: A European Dilemma. European Societies, 99–3101797-X. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • SFS (2000).:1383. “Lag Om Kommunernas Bostadsförsörjningsansvar.”

  • Soininen, M. (1992). Det Kommunala Flyktingmottagandet. Genomförande Och Organisation. Stockholm: CEIFO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sridhar, K., Reddy, A., and Srinath, P. (2012). “Is it push or pull? Recent Evidence from Migration into Bangalore, India.” Journal of International Migration and Integration: 1–20. doi:10.1007/s12134-012-0241-9.

  • Statistics Sweden (2009). “Beskrivning Av Sveriges Befolkning 2008”. Örebro.

  • Statistics Sweden (2010). www.scb.se.

  • Steen, A. (2009). “Hvorfor Tar Kommunene Imot ‘De Fremmede’? Eliter Og Lokal Skepsis”. In Det Nære Demokratiet-Lokalvalg Og Lokal Deltakelse, edited by Jo Saglie. Oslo: Abstrakt forlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steen, A. (2010). “Crossing the Local Community Border: Immigrant Settlement in Norway”. In Diversity, Inclusion and Citizenship in Scandinavia, edited by Bo Bengtsson, Per Strömblad, and Ann-Helén Bay. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swedish Public Employment Service (2010). “Arbetslösa Och i Program, Andelar Av Befolkningen.” www.arbetsformedlingen.se.

  • Swedish Social Insurance Agency (2010). “Ohälsotalet.” www.forsakringskassan.se.

  • Tarrow, S. G. (1994). Power in Movement: Social Movements, Collective Action and Politics. Cambridge Studies in Comparative Politics, 99–1559315–5. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • The Swedish Migration Board (2010). “Överenskommelser Om Kommunalt Flyktingmottagande 2007–2010.” www.migrationsverket.se.

  • The Swedish Migration Board (2012). www.migrationsverket.se.

  • Thielemann, E. R. (2004). Why asylum policy harmonization undermines refugee burden-sharing. European Journal of Migration and Law, 6, 47–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, S. E., & Butler, D. M. (2007). A lot more to do: The sensitivity of time-series cross-section analyses to simple alternative specifications. Political Analysis, 15(2), 101–123. doi:10.1093/pan/mpl012.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

An earlier draft of this manuscprit was presented at the annual meeting of the Swedish Political Science Association in Växjö 2012. We would like to thank Svante Ersson and the three anonymous reviewers for their comments on earlier drafts of this manuscpript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Gustav Lidén.

Data Appendix

Data Appendix

Dependent variable: number of accepted refugees per 1,000 citizens from the Swedish Migration Board (2010), data for 2006–2010. Municipalities that lack agreement are coded with the value 0. A few municipalities have an agreement without specification of the number of places, and these are treated as missing values. Independent variables: unemployment rate, calculated for the population aged 16–64 years from the Swedish Public Employment Service (2010), data for 2006–2009; average income, calculated for the population older than 20 years, from Statistics Sweden (2010), data for 2006–2009; sickness rate, calculated for the population aged 16–64 years, from the Swedish Social Insurance Agency (2010), data for 2006–2009; financial solidity, from the Database for Local and County Councils (2010), data for 2006–2009; Gini coefficient, based on income distribution, from Statistics Sweden (2010), data for 2006–2009; population with post-secondary education, from the Confederation of Swedish Enterprise (2010), data for 2006–2009; population, from Statistics Sweden (2010), data for 2006–2010; population density, from Statistics Sweden (2010), data for 2006–2009; average age, from Statistics Sweden (2010), data for 2006–2009; share of votes for left-wing party, votes for the Left Party in National Parliament election, from the Election Authority (2010), data from elections 2002 and 2006; share of votes for conservative party, votes for the Moderate Party in National Parliament election, from the Election Authority (2010), data from elections 2002 and 2006; share of votes for right-wing party, votes for the Swedish Democrats in National Parliament election, from the Election Authority (2010), data from elections 2002 and 2006; population with foreign background, from Statistics Sweden (2010), data for 2006–2009; share of free apartments, based on statistics from public housing companies, from Statistics Sweden (2010), data for 2006–2009.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Lidén, G., Nyhlén, J. Explaining Local Swedish Refugee Policy. Int. Migration & Integration 15, 547–565 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12134-013-0294-4

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12134-013-0294-4

Keywords

Navigation