Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

The Hazards of Investigating Internet Crimes Against Children: Digital Evidence Handlers’ Experiences with Vicarious Trauma and Coping Behaviors

  • Published:
American Journal of Criminal Justice Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Over the last two decades there has been a substantive increase in the number of cybercrime and digital forensic units in local and state police agencies across the US. There is, however, little research on the occupational responses of individuals serving in specialized roles within criminal justice agencies. Individuals tasked to these units are likely to encounter psychologically harmful materials on a regular basis due to the number of child pornography and sexual exploitation cases they are assigned. As a result, this study examined the experiences of vicarious trauma and coping behaviors of digital forensic examiners in a sample culled from across the country. The findings suggest that exposure to content involving crimes against children directly and indirectly increases the likelihood of trauma and incidence of coping strategies employed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. The proportion of missing cases across the original variables were between 2% and 6%. The summed index variables had a higher proportion of missing because the missing cases in the original data compounded in the index. Because the proportion of missing cases was around 5% we assume they are missing at random. Furthermore, we used Mplus’s FIML imputation algorithm to replace missing cases, but the results were virtually the same. To keep the descriptive sample the same as the model, we did not use imputation.

  2. Even though we used confirmatory factor analysis for the model, some of the items were based on validated indices from the literature. Therefore, following the extant literature, we used the indices rather than create latent factors.

  3. Correlating the error terms for observed variables can be problematic as this can improve model fit base solely on chance (i.e., in another sample, the improvement may not occur). Given these two items were similar, we assume the correlated error accounts a real correlation in measurement error. To confirm this, we tested a measurement model with the images variable removed and the model fit remained the same: chi-square p-value = 0.000; RMSEA = 0.000; CFI = 1.000; and TLI = 1.000).

References

  • Addis, N., & Stephens, C. (2008). An evaluation of a police debriefing programme: Outcomes for police officers five years after a police shooting. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 10(4), 361–373.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Belknap, J., & Shelly, J. K. (1992). The new lone ranger: Police women on patrol. American Journal of Policing, 12, 47–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bollen, K. A. (1989). Structural equations with latent variables. New York: Wiley.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Bonifacio, P. (1991). The Psychological Effects of Police Work. New York: Springer.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Bowler, R. M., Han, H., Gocheva, V., Nakagawa, S., Alper, H., DiGrande, L., & Cone, J. E. (2010). Gender differences in probable posttraumatic stress disorder among police responders to the 2001 World Trade Center terrorist attack. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 53(12), 1186–1196.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bride, B. E., Robinson, M. M., Yegidis, B., & Figley, C. R. (2004). Development and validation of the secondary traumatic stress scale. Research on Social Work Practice, 14(1), 27–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brooks, L. W., & Piquero, N. L. (1998). Police stress: Does department size matter? Policing, 21(4), 600–617.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, J., Fielding, J., & Grover, J. (1999). Distinguishing traumatic, vicarious and routine operational stressor exposure and attendant adverse consequences in a sample of police officers. Work & Stress, 13(4), 312–325.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, J., Mulhern, G., & Joseph, S. (2002). Incident-related stressors, locus of control, coping, and psychological distress among firefighters in Northern Ireland. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 15(2), 161–168.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burns, C. M., Morley, J., Bradshaw, R., & Domene, J. (2008). The emotion impact on and coping strategies employed by police teams investigating Internet child exploitation. Traumatology, 14, 20–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burke, R. J., Weir, T., & DuWors Jr., R. E. (1979). Type A behavior of administrators and wives’ reports of marital satisfaction and well-being. Journal of Applied Psychology, 64, 57–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clohessy, S., & Ehlers, A. (1999). PTSD symptoms, response to intrusive memories and coping in ambulance service workers. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 38(3), 251–265.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coman, G., & Evans, B. (1991). Stressors facing Australian police in the 1990s. Police Stud.: Int'l Rev. Police Dev., 14, 153.

  • Crank, J. P., & Caldero, M. (1991). Production of occupational stress in medium-sized police agencies: A survey of line officers in eight municipal departments. Journal of Criminal Justice, 19(4), 339–349.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cullen, F. T., Lemming, T., Link, B. G., & Wozniak, J. F. (1985). The impact of social supports on police stress. Criminology, 23, 503–522.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, S., & Kendall, T. D. (2010). Sex for sale: Online commerce in the world’s oldest profession. Crime Online: Correlates, Causes, and Context, 145–174.

  • Dick, P. (2000). The social construction of the meaning of accute stressors: A qualitative study of the personal accounts of police officers using a stress counseling service. Work & Stress, 14(3), 226–244.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Evans, B. J., Coman, G., Stanley, R. O., & Burrows, G. D. (1993). Police officers' coping strategies: An Australian police survey. Stress and Health, 9(4), 237–246.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferraro, M., & Casey, E. (2005). Investigating child exploitation and pornography: The internet, the law, and forensic science. New York: Elsevier Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haarr, R., & Morash, M. (1999). Gender, race, and strategies of coping with occupational stress in policing. Justice Quarterly, 16, 303–336.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haisch, D. C., & Meyers, L. S. (2004). MMPI-2 assessed post-traumatic stress disorder related to job stress, coping, and personality in police agencies. Stress and Health, 20, 233–229.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herbert, S. (1998). Police subculture reconsidered. Criminology, 36(2), 343–370.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hinduja, S. (2004). Perceptions of local and state law enforcement concerning the role of computer crime investigative teams. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management, 3, 341–357.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hinduja, S. (2007). Computer crime investigations in the United States: leveraging knowledge from the past to address the future. International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 1(1), 1–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holt, T. J., & Blevins, K. R. (2011). Examining job stress and satisfaction among digital forensic examiners. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 27, 124–140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holt, T. J., Blevins, K. R., & Burruss, G. W. (2012). Examining the stress, satisfaction, and experiences of computer crime examiners. Journal of Crime and Justice, 35, 35–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holt, T. J., Blevins, K. R., & Smith, R. W. (2017). Examining the impact of organizational and individual characteristics on forensic scientists’ job stress and satisfaction. Journal of Crime and Justice, 40(1), 34–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holt, T. J., Bossler, A. M., & Fitzgerald, S. (2010). Examining state and local law enforcement perceptions of computer crime. In T. J. Holt (Ed.), Crime on-line:Correlates, causes, and context (pp. 221–246). Raleigh: Carolina Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holt, T. J., Burruss, G. W., & Bossler, A. M. (2015). Policing cybercrime and cyberterror. Durham: Carolina Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huddleston, L., Stephens, C., & Paton, D. (2007). An evaluation of traumatic and organizational experiences on the psychological health of New Zealand police recruits. Work, 28(3), 199–207.

    Google Scholar 

  • Israel, B. A., House, J. S., Schurman, S. J., Heaney, C. A., & Mero, R. P. (1989). The relationship of personal sources, participation, influence, interpersonal relationships, and coping strategies to occupational stress, job strains and health: A multivariate analysis. Work & Stress, 3, 163–194.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, S., & Maslach, C. (1982). After-effects of job-related stress: Families as victims. Journal of Occupational Behavior, 3, 63–77.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, L. B. (1991). Job strain among police officers: Gender comparisons. Police Studies, 14, 12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krause, M. (2009). Identifying and managing stress in child pornography and child exploitation investigators. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 24, 22–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krimmell, J. T., & Gormley, P. E. (2003). Tokenism and job satisfaction for police women. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 28, 73–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kroes, W. H. (1985). Society’s victim—the policeman—an analysis of job stress in policing (2nd ed.). New York: Charles C. Thomas.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kurtz, D. L. (2012). Roll call and the second shift: The influences of gender and family on police stress. Police Practice and Research, 13(1), 71–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lau, B., Hem, E., & Berg, A. M. (2006). Personality types, coping, and stress in the Norwegian police service. Personality and Individual Differences, 41, 971–982.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lilly, M. M., Pole, N., Best, S. R., Metzler, T., & Marmar, C. R. (2009). Gender and PTSD: What can we learn from female police officers? Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 23(6), 767–774.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marcum, C., & Higgins, G. E. (2011). Combating child exploitation online: Predictors of successful ICAC task forces. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 5, 310–316.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marcum, C., Higgins, G. E., Freiburger, T. L., & Ricketts, M. L. (2010). Policing possession of child pornography online: Investigating the training and resources dedicated to the investigation of cyber crime. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 12, 516–525.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martelli, T. A., Waters, L. K., & Martelli, J. (1989). The police stress survey: Reliability and relation to job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Psychological Reports, 64(1), 267–273.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ménard, K. S., & Arter, M. L. (2013). Police officer alcohol use and trauma symptoms: Associations with critical incidents, coping, and social stressors. International Journal of Stress Management, 20(1), 37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morash, M., Haarr, R., & Kwak, D. (2006). Multilevel influences on police stress. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 22, 26–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998-2017). Mplus User’s Guide. 8 Edition. Los Angeles: Muthén & Muthén.

  • National Academy of Sciences. (2009). Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path Forward. Committee on Identifying the Needs of the Forensic Sciences Community; Committee on Applied and Theoretical Statistics, National Research Council.

  • Newman, D. W., & Rucker-Reed, M. L. (2004). Police stress, state-trait anxiety, and stressors among U.S. Marshals. Journal of Criminal Justice, 32, 631–641.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pasillas, R. M., Follette, V. M., & Perumean-Chaney, S. E. (2006). Occupational stress and psychological functioning in law enforcement officers. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 21(1), 41–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perez, L. M., Jones, J., Engler, D. R., & Sachau, D. (2010). Secondary traumatic stress and burnout among law enforcement investigators exposed to disturbing media images. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 25, 113–124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pienaar, J., Rothmann, S., & van d Vijver, F. J. R. (2007). Occupational stress, personality traits, coping strategies, and suicide ideation in the South American Police Service. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 34, 246–258.

  • Reiser, M., & Geiger, S. P. (1984). Police officer as victim. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 15(3), 315.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rivard, J. M., Dietz, P., Martell, D., & Widawski, M. (2002). Acute dissociative responses in law enforcement officers involved in critical shooting incidents: The clinical and forensic implications. Journal of Forensic Science, 47(5), 1–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robbers, M. L., & Jenkins, J. M. (2005). Symptomatology of post-traumatic stress disorder among first responders to the Pentagon on 9/11: A preliminary analysis of Arlington County police first responders. Police Practice and Research, 6(3), 235–249.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Senjo, S. R. (2004). An analysis of computer-related crime: Comparing police officer perceptions with empirical data. Security Journal, 17, 55–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shakespeare-Finch, J., Gow, K., & Smith, S. (2005). Personality, Coping and Posttraumatic Growth in Emergency Ambulance Personnel. Traumatology, 11(4), 325.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spielberger, C. D., Westbury, L. G., Grier, K. S., & Greenfield, G. (1981). The police stress survey (Human Resources Institute Monograph Series 3 [6]). Tampa: University of South Florida.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stambaugh, H., Beaupre, D. S., Icove, D. J., Baker, R., Cassaday, W., & Williams, W. P. (2001). Electronic crime needs assessment for state and local law enforcement. Washington DC: National Institute of Justice. Retrieved from http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/186276.pdf Accessed 3 Aug 2010.

  • Stephens, C., Long, N., & Miller, I. (1997). The impact of trauma and social support on post traumatic stress disorder: A study of New Zealand police officers. Journal of Criminal Justice, 25(4), 303–314.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stevenson, J. (2007). Welfare considerations for supervisors managing child sexual abuse online units. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. London, UK: Middlesex University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Storch, J. E., & Panzerella, R. (1996). Police stress: State-trait anxiety in relation to occupational and personal stressors. Journal of Criminal Justice, 24, 99–107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swatt, M. L., Gibson, C. L., & Piquero, N. L. (2007). Exploring the utility of general strain theory in explaining problematic alcohol consumption by police officers. Journal of Criminal Justice, 35(6), 596–611.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tang, T. L., & Hammontree, M. L. (1992). The effects of hardiness, police stress, and life stress on police officers’ illness and absenteeism. Public Personnel Management, 21, 493–510.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Patten, I. T., & Burke, T. W. (2001). Critical incident stress and the child homicide investigator. Homicide Studies, 5(2), 131–152.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Violanti, J. M. (1995). The mystery within: Understanding police suicide. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 64, 19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Violanti, J. M., & Gehrke, A. (2004). Police Trauma Encounters: Precursors of compassion fatigue. International Journal of Emergency Mental Health, 6(2), 75–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Violanti, J. M., & Marshall, J. R. (1983). Police stress process. Journal of Police Science and Administration, 11(4), 389–394.

    Google Scholar 

  • Violanti, J. M., & Paton, D. (1999). Police trauma: Psychological aftermath of civilian combat. Springfield: Charles C. Thomas.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vollrath, M., & Torgersen, S. (2000). Personality types and coping. Personality and Individual Differences, 32, 1185–1197.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wearing, A. J., & Hart, P. M. (1996). Work and non-work coping strategies: Their relation to personality, appraisal, and life domain. Stress Medicine, 12, 93–103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Willits, D., & Nowacki, J. (2016). The use of specialized cybercrime policing units: An organizational analysis. Criminal Justice Studies, 29, 105–124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wolak, J., Finkelhor, D., & Mitchell, K. J. (2012). Trends in Arrests for Child Pornography Production: The Third National Juvenile Online Victimization Study (NJOV-3).

  • Zhao, J., Thurman, Q., & He, N. (1999). Sources of job satisfaction among police officers: A test of demographic and work environment models. Justice Quarterly, 16, 153–173.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Criminology, The Florida Center for Cybersecurity (FC2), University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA

    George W. Burruss

  2. Department of Criminal Justice, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA

    Thomas J. Holt

  3. The National White Collar Crime Center (NW3C), Richmond, VA, USA

    April Wall-Parker

Authors
  1. George W. Burruss
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Thomas J. Holt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. April Wall-Parker
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Thomas J. Holt.

Appendix

Appendix

Variables for Secondary Trauma Index

Any reminder brought back feelings about it.

I had trouble staying asleep.

Other things kept making me think about it.

I felt irritable and angry.

I avoided letting myself get upset when I thought about it or was reminded of it.

I thought about it when I didn’t mean to.

I felt as if it hadn’t happened or wasn’t real.

I stayed away from reminders about it.

Pictures about it popped into my mind.

I tried not to think about it.

I was aware that I still had feelings but didn’t deal with them.

My feelings about it were kind of numb.

I had waves of strong feelings about it.

I tried to remove it from memory.

I had trouble concentrating.

I was watchful or on guard.

I tried not to talk about it.

All seventeen items were measured on the following scale: (1) not at all; (2) a little bit; (3) moderately; (4) quite a bit; and (4) extremely.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Burruss, G.W., Holt, T.J. & Wall-Parker, A. The Hazards of Investigating Internet Crimes Against Children: Digital Evidence Handlers’ Experiences with Vicarious Trauma and Coping Behaviors. Am J Crim Just 43, 433–447 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-017-9417-3

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-017-9417-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation