Post-Infectious Irritable Bowel Syndrome

  • Yeong Yeh Lee
  • Chandramouli Annamalai
  • Satish S. C. Rao
Neurogastroenterology and Motility Disorders of the Gastrointestinal Tract (S Rao, Section Editor)
Part of the following topical collections:
  1. Topical Collection on Neurogastroenterology and Motility Disorders of the Gastrointestinal Tract

Abstract

Purpose of Review

Post-infectious irritable bowel syndrome (PI-IBS) is characterized by persistent abdominal pain and diarrhea, typically following an episode of infectious gastroenteritis. The mechanisms that underlie IBS-D remain elusive, but PI-IBS provides a mechanistic model of this disorder. This review provides an up-to-date appraisal of the pathophysiology, clinical features, and management approaches for PI-IBS.

Recent Findings

Disordered immune reactions and release of cytokines with resultant gut inflammation and dysfunction appear to be key features of PI-IBS. Disordered brain-gut-microbiota interactions, type of infecting agent, and host-genetic susceptibility are risk factors but also are reasons for the varying spectrum of clinical severity. Although prognosis is generally good, symptoms and inflammation may persist for a long time. Symptomatic relief with antidiarrheals, antispasmodics, 5HT3 antagonists, mesalamine, probiotics, and low-dose antidepressants remain the primary approaches, but in some difficult cases, a combination of drugs that target the pathophysiology may be helpful.

Summary

PI-IBS has many overlapping features with IBS-D and shares similar pathophysiology and management approaches.

Keywords

Irritable bowel syndrome Diarrhea Gastroenteritis Pathophysiology Inflammation 

Notes

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme of Ministry of Education of Malaysia (reference: 203.PPSP.6171183 and 203.PPSP.6171192).

Compliance with Ethical Standards

Conflict of Interest

Yeong Yeh Lee, Chandramouli Annamalai, and Satish S. C. Rao declare no conflict of interest.

Human and Animal Rights and Informed Consent

This article does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by any of the authors.

References

Papers of particular interest, published recently, have been highlighted as: • Of importance •• Of major importance

  1. 1.
    Thabane M, Marshall JK. Post-infectious irritable bowel syndrome. World J Gastroenterol. 2009;15:3591–6.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  2. 2.
    Dunlop SP, Jenkins D, Spiller RC. Distinctive clinical, psychological, and histological features of post-infective irritable bowel syndrome. Am J Gastroenterol. 2003;98:1578–83.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  3. 3.
    Chaudhary NA, Truelove SC. The irritable colon syndrome: a study of the clinical features, predisposing causes, and prognosis in 130 cases. Q J Med. 1962;31:307–22.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  4. 4.
    •• Marshall JK, Thabane M, Garg AX, Clark WF, Salvadori M, Collins S. Incidence and epidemiology of irritable bowel syndrome after a large waterborne outbreak of bacterial dysentery. Gastroenterology. 2006;131:445–50. This is considered to many as the landmark study of post-infectious IBS. CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  5. 5.
    Borgaonkar MR, Ford DC, Marshall JK, Churchill E, Collins SM. The incidence of irritable bowel syndrome among community subjects with previous acute enteric infection. Dig Dis Sci. 2006;51:1026–32.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  6. 6.
    Ilnyckyj A, Balachandra B, Elliott L, Choudhri S, Duerksen DR. Post-traveler’s diarrhea irritable bowel syndrome: a prospective study. Am J Gastroenterol. 2003;98:596–9.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  7. 7.
    Okhuysen PC, Jiang ZD, Carlin L, Forbes C, DuPont HL. Post-diarrhea chronic intestinal symptoms and irritable bowel syndrome in north American travelers to Mexico. Am J Gastroenterol. 2004;99:1774–8.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  8. 8.
    Rodríguez LAG, Ruigómez A. Increased risk of irritable bowel syndrome after bacterial gastroenteritis: cohort study. BMJ. 1999;318:565–6.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  9. 9.
    McKendrick M, Read N. Irritable bowel syndrome—post salmonella infection. J Inf Secur. 1994;29:1–3.Google Scholar
  10. 10.
    Mearin F, Badia X, Balboa A, Baró E, Caldwell E, Cucala M, et al. Irritable bowel syndrome prevalence varies enormously depending on the employed diagnostic criteria: comparison of Rome II versus previous criteria in a general population. Scand J Gastroenterol. 2001;36:1155–61.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  11. 11.
    Stermer E, Lubezky A, Potasman I, Paster E, Lavy A. Is traveler’s diarrhea a significant risk factor for the development of irritable bowel syndrome? A prospective study. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;43:898–0.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  12. 12.
    Kim HS, Kim MS, Ji SW, Park H. The development of irritable bowel syndrome after Shigella infection: 3 year follow-up study. Korean J Gastroenterol. 2006;47:300–5.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  13. 13.
    Moss-Morris R, Spence M. To “lump” or to “split” the functional somatic syndromes: can infectious and emotional risk factors differentiate between the onset of chronic fatigue syndrome and irritable bowel syndrome? Psychosom Med. 2006;68:463–9.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  14. 14.
    Spence MJ, Moss-Morris R. The cognitive behavioural model of irritable bowel syndrome: a prospective investigation of patients with gastroenteritis. Gut. 2007;56:1066–71.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  15. 15.
    Wang L, Fang X, Pan G. Bacillary dysentery as a causative factor of irritable bowel syndrome and its pathogenesis. Gut. 2004;53:1096–101.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  16. 16.
    Halvorson HA, Schlett CD, Riddle MS. Postinfectious irritable bowel syndrome—a meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol. 2006;101:1894–9.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  17. 17.
    Thabane M, Kottachchi D, Marshall J. Systematic review and meta-analysis: the incidence and prognosis of post-infectious irritable bowel syndrome. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2007;26:535–44.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  18. 18.
    Thabane M, Simunovic M, Akhtar-Danesh N, Garg AX, Clark WF, Collins SM, et al. An outbreak of acute bacterial gastroenteritis is associated with an increased incidence of irritable bowel syndrome in children. Am J Gastroenterol. 2010;105:933–9.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  19. 19.
    Mutsch M, Pitzurra R, Hatz C, Steffen R. Post-infectious Sequelae of Travelers' diarrhea: irritable bowel syndrome. J Travel Med. 2014;21:141–3.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  20. 20.
    Lee YY, Rao SC. Post-infectious irritable bowel syndrome. Biota-Scope 2015;2:10–6.Google Scholar
  21. 21.
    •• Lawenko RMA, Lee YY, Nurfadhilah Y, Yaacob N, Mohammad WMZW, Liong MT, et al. The role of gut dysbiosis and probiotics in persistent abdominal pain following a major flood disaster. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2016;31:131. This study provides evidence for IBS akin to post-infectious IBS following a major disaster and that probiotic is useful in such a situation. Google Scholar
  22. 22.
    Neal K, Hebden J, Spiller R. Prevalence of gastrointestinal symptoms six months after bacterial gastroenteritis and risk factors for development of the irritable bowel syndrome: postal survey of patients. BMJ. 1997;314:779–82.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  23. 23.
    Ibarra C, Herrera V. Pérez dAE, Gil L, Madrid A, Valenzuela L, et al. Parasitosis and irritable bowel syndrome. Rev Chil Infectol. 2016;33:268–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  24. 24.
    Motomura Y, Khan WI, El-Sharkawy RT, Verma-Gandhu M, Grencis RK, Collins SM. Mechanisms underlying gut dysfunction in a murine model of chronic parasitic infection. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2010;299:G1354–60.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  25. 25.
    Beatty J, Bhargava A, Buret A. Post-infectious irritable bowel syndrome: mechanistic insights into chronic disturbances following enteric infection. World J Gastroenterol. 2014;20:3976–85.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  26. 26.
    Teoh DA, Kamieniecki D, Pang G, Buret AG. Giardia Lamblia rearranges F-actin and α-actinin in human colonic and duodenal monolayers and reduces transepithelial electrical resistance. J Parasitol. 2000;86:800–6.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  27. 27.
    Hanevik K, Dizdar V, Langeland N, Hausken T. Development of functional gastrointestinal disorders after Giardia lamblia infection. BMC Gastroenterol. 2009;9:1–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  28. 28.
    Buret AG. Pathophysiology of enteric infections with Giardia duodenalis. Parasite. 2008;15:261–5.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  29. 29.
    Long Y, Wang W, Wang H, Hao L, Qian W, Hou X. Characteristics of intestinal lamina propria dendritic cells in a mouse model of postinfectious irritable bowel syndrome. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2012;27:935–44.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  30. 30.
    Lupp C, Robertson ML, Wickham ME, Sekirov I, Champion OL, Gaynor EC, et al. Host-mediated inflammation disrupts the intestinal microbiota and promotes the overgrowth of Enterobacteriaceae. Cell Host Microbe. 2007;2:119–29.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  31. 31.
    •• Ghoshal UC, Gwee K-A. Post-infectious IBS, tropical sprue and small intestinal bacterial overgrowth: the missing link. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2017;14:435–41. This review provides some thought provoking issues in relation to tropical sprue and how it is associated with post-infectious IBS CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  32. 32.
    Malinen E, Rinttilä T, Kajander K, Mättö J, Kassinen A, Krogius L, et al. Analysis of the fecal microbiota of irritable bowel syndrome patients and healthy controls with real-time PCR. Am J Gastroenterol. 2005;100:373–82.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  33. 33.
    Krogius-Kurikka L, Lyra A, Malinen E, Aarnikunnas J, Tuimala J, Paulin L, et al. Microbial community analysis reveals high level phylogenetic alterations in the overall gastrointestinal microbiota of diarrhoea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome sufferers. BMC Gastroenterol. 2009;9:95.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  34. 34.
    •• Jalanka-Tuovinen J, Salojärvi J, Salonen A, Immonen O, Garsed K, Kelly FM, et al. Faecal microbiota composition and host–microbe cross-talk following gastroenteritis and in postinfectious irritable bowel syndrome. Gut. 2014;63:1737–45. The faecal microbiota of patients with PI-IBS differ from that of healthy controls and resemble patients with IBS-D, suggesting a common pathophysiology. CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  35. 35.
    Levy RL, Jones KR, Whitehead WE, Feld SI, Talley NJ, Corey LA. Irritable bowel syndrome in twins: heredity and social learning both contribute to etiology. Gastroenterology. 2001;121:799–804.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  36. 36.
    Spiller RC. Postinfectious irritable bowel syndrome. Gastroenterology. 2003;124:1662–71.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  37. 37.
    Van Der Veek PP, Van Den Berg M, De Kroon YE, Verspaget HW, Masclee AA. Role of tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-10 gene polymorphisms in irritable bowel syndrome. Am J Gastroenterol. 2005;100:2510–6.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  38. 38.
    Villani AC, Lemire M, Thabane M, Belisle A, Geneau G, Garg AX, et al. Genetic risk factors for post-infectious irritable bowel syndrome following a waterborne outbreak of gastroenteritis. Gastroenterology. 2010;138:1502–13.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  39. 39.
    Spiller RC, Jenkins D, Thornley JM, Hebden J, Wright T, Skinner M, et al. Increased rectal mucosal enteroendocrine cells, T lymphocytes, and increased gut permeability following acuteCampylobacter enteritis and in post-dysenteric irritable bowel syndrome. Gut. 2000;47:804–11.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  40. 40.
    Keating C, Beyak M, Foley S, Singh G, Marsden C, Spiller R, et al. Afferent hypersensitivity in a mouse model of post-inflammatory gut dysfunction: role of altered serotonin metabolism. J Physiol. 2008;586:4517–30.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  41. 41.
    Barbara G, Wang B, Stanghellini V, De Giorgio R, Cremon C, Di Nardo G, et al. Mast cell-dependent excitation of visceral-nociceptive sensory neurons in irritable bowel syndrome. Gastroenterology. 2007;132:26–37.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  42. 42.
    Mearin F, Perelló A, Balboa A, Perona M, Sans M, Salas A, et al. Pathogenic mechanisms of postinfectious functional gastrointestinal disorders: results 3 years after gastroenteritis. Scand J Gastroenterol. 2009;44:1173–85.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  43. 43.
    Barbara G, Stanghellini V, De Giorgio R, Cremon C, Cottrell GS, Santini D, et al. Activated mast cells in proximity to colonic nerves correlate with abdominal pain in irritable bowel syndrome. Gastroenterology. 2004;126:693–702.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  44. 44.
    Park JH, Rhee PL, Kim HS, Lee JH, Kim YH, Kim JJ, et al. Mucosal mast cell counts correlate with visceral hypersensitivity in patients with diarrhea predominant irritable bowel syndrome. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2006;21:71–8.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  45. 45.
    Sundin J, Rangel I, Kumawat AK, Hultgren-Hörnquist E, Brummer RJ. Aberrant mucosal lymphocyte number and subsets in the colon of post-infectious irritable bowel syndrome patients. Scand J Gastroenterol. 2014;49:1068–75.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  46. 46.
    Sundin J, Rangel I, Fuentes S, Heikamp-de Jong I, Hultgren-Hörnquist E, Vos W, et al. Altered faecal and mucosal microbial composition in post-infectious irritable bowel syndrome patients correlates with mucosal lymphocyte phenotypes and psychological distress. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2015;41:342–51.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  47. 47.
    Gwee K, Collins S, Read N, Rajnakova A, Deng Y, Graham J, et al. Increased rectal mucosal expression of interleukin 1β in recently acquired post-infectious irritable bowel syndrome. Gut. 2003;52:523–6.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  48. 48.
    Ghoshal UC, Shukla R, Ghoshal U, Gwee K-A, Ng SC, Quigley EM. The gut microbiota and irritable bowel syndrome: friend or foe? Int J Inflam. 2012;2012:13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  49. 49.
    Lee YA, Nam YH, Min A, et al. Entamoeba histolytica-secreted cysteine proteases induce IL-8 production in human mast cells via a PAR2-independent mechanism. Parasite. 2014;21:1.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  50. 50.
    Clarke G, McKernan DP, Gaszner G, Quigley EM, Cryan JF, Dinan TG. Increased Kynurenine production following toll-like receptor (TLR) activation: a novel role for Tlr8 in irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). Gastroenterology. 2011;140(5):S-111.Google Scholar
  51. 51.
    Brint EK, MacSharry J, Fanning A, Shanahan F, Quigley EM. Differential expression of toll-like receptors in patients with irritable bowel syndrome. Am J Gastroenterol. 2011;106(2):329–36.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  52. 52.
    Belmonte L, Youmba SB, Bertiaux-Vandaele N, Antonietti M, Lecleire S, Zalar A, et al. Role of toll like receptors in irritable bowel syndrome: differential mucosal immune activation according to the disease subtype. PLoS One. 2012;7:e42777.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  53. 53.
    Hansson GC. Role of mucus layers in gut infection and inflammation. Curr Opin Microbiol. 2012;15:57–62.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  54. 54.
    Faure M, Moënnoz D, Montigon F, Mettraux C, Breuillé D, Ballèvre O. Dietary threonine restriction specifically reduces intestinal mucin synthesis in rats. J Nutr. 2005;135:486–91.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  55. 55.
    Kashyap PC, Marcobal A, Ursell LK, Smits SA, Sonnenburg ED, Costello EK, et al. Genetically dictated change in host mucus carbohydrate landscape exerts a diet-dependent effect on the gut microbiota. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2013;110:17059–64.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  56. 56.
    Simpson J, Sundler F, Humes D, Jenkins D, Wakelin D, Scholefield J, et al. Prolonged elevation of galanin and tachykinin expression in mucosal and myenteric enteric nerves in trinitrobenzene sulphonic acid colitis. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2008;20:392–406.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  57. 57.
    Akbar A, Yiangou Y, Facer P, Walters JR, Anand P, Ghosh S. Increased capsaicin receptor TRPV1-expressing sensory fibres in irritable bowel syndrome and their correlation with abdominal pain. Gut. 2008;57:923–9.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  58. 58.
    Törnblom H, Lindberg G, Nyberg B, Veress B. Full-thickness biopsy of the jejunum reveals inflammation and enteric neuropathy in irritable bowel syndrome. Gastroenterology. 2002;123:1972–9.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  59. 59.
    Gwee KA, Lu CL, Ghoshal UC. Epidemiology of irritable bowel syndrome in Asia: something old, something new, something borrowed. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2009;24:1601–7.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  60. 60.
    Wouters MM, Van Wanrooy S, Nguyen A, Dooley J, Aguilera-Lizarraga J, Van Brabant W, et al. Psychological comorbidity increases the risk for postinfectious IBS partly by enhanced susceptibility to develop infectious gastroenteritis. Gut. 2016;65:1279–88.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  61. 61.
    Kiank C, Taché Y, Larauche M. Stress-related modulation of inflammation in experimental models of bowel disease and post-infectious irritable bowel syndrome: role of corticotropin-releasing factor receptors. Brain Behav Immun. 2010;24:41–8.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  62. 62.
    Clarke G, Cryan J, Dinan T, Quigley EM. Probiotics for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome–focus on lactic acid bacteria. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2012;35:403–13.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  63. 63.
    Huang JS, Bousvaros A, Lee JW, Diaz A, Davidson EJ. Efficacy of probiotic use in acute diarrhea in children: a meta-analysis. Dig Dis Sci. 2002;47:2625–34.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  64. 64.
    O’Mahony L, McCarthy J, Kelly P, Hurley G, Luo F, Chen K, et al. Lactobacillus and bifidobacterium in irritable bowel syndrome: symptom responses and relationship to cytokine profiles. Gastroenterology. 2005;128:541–51.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  65. 65.
    Cuomo R, Savarese MF, Gargano R. Almost all irritable bowel syndromes are post-infectious and respond to probiotics: consensus issues. Dig Dis. 2007;25:241–4.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  66. 66.
    Verdu EF, Bercik P, Verma-Gandhu M, Huang X-X, Blennerhassett P, Jackson W, et al. Specific probiotic therapy attenuates antibiotic induced visceral hypersensitivity in mice. Gut. 2006;55:182–90.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  67. 67.
    Parry SD, Barton JR, Welfare MR. Factors associated with the development of post-infectious functional gastrointestinal diseases: does smoking play a role? Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2005;17:1071–5.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  68. 68.
    Lee YY, Waid A, Tan HJ, Chua AS, Whitehead WE. Rome III survey of irritable bowel syndrome among ethnic Malays. World J Gastroenterol. 2012;18:6475–80.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  69. 69.
    McCarroll MG, Riddle MS, Gutierrez RL, Porter CK. Infectious gastroenteritis as a risk factor for tropical Sprue and Malabsorption: a case–control study. Dig Dis Sci. 2015;60:3379–85.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  70. 70.
    David L-E, Surdea-Blaga T, Dumitrascu D-L. Semiquantitative fecal calprotectin test in postinfectious and non-postinfectious irritable bowel syndrome: cross-sectional study. Sao Paulo Med J. 2015;133:343–9.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  71. 71.
    Pimentel M, Morales W, Rezaie A, Marsh E, Lembo A, Mirocha J, et al. Development and validation of a biomarker for diarrhea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome in human subjects. PLoS One. 2015;10:e0126438.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  72. 72.
    •• Marshall J, Thabane M, Garg A, Clark W, Moayyedi P, Collins S. Walkerton health study investigators. Eight year prognosis of postinfectious irritable bowel syndrome following waterborne bacterial dysentery. Gut. 2010;59:605–11. This study provides data on prognosis of post-infectious IBS for eight years. CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  73. 73.
    • Abdul Rani R, Ali R, Affendi R, Lee YY. Irritable bowel syndrome and inflammatory bowel disease overlap syndrome: pieces of the puzzle are falling into place. Intest Res. 2016;14:297–304. Both IBD and IBS have significant overlap in terms of symptoms, pathophysiology, and treatment, suggesting the possibility of IBS and IBD being a single disease entity albeit at opposite ends of the spectrum. CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  74. 74.
    Hilmi I, Hartono JL, Pailoor J, Mahadeva S, Goh K-L. Low prevalence of ‘classical’microscopic colitis but evidence of microscopic inflammation in Asian irritable bowel syndrome patients with diarrhoea. BMC Gastroenterol. 2013;13:80.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  75. 75.
    Porter CK, Cash BD, Pimentel M, Akinseye A, Riddle MS. Risk of inflammatory bowel disease following a diagnosis of irritable bowel syndrome. BMC Gastroenterol. 2012;12:55.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  76. 76.
    Efskind P, Bernklev T, Vatn M. A double-blind placebo-controlled trial with loperamide in irritable bowel syndrome. Scand J Gastroenterol. 1996;31(5):463–8.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  77. 77.
    Drossman DA, Toner BB, Whitehead WE, Diamant NE, Dalton CB, Duncan S, et al. Cognitive-behavioral therapy versus education and desipramine versus placebo for moderate to severe functional bowel disorders. Gastroenterology. 2003;125:19–31. Epub 2003/07/10 CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  78. 78.
    Corinaldesi R, Stanghellini V, Cremon C, Gargano L, Cogliandro R, De Giorgio R, et al. Effect of mesalazine on mucosal immune biomarkers in irritable bowel syndrome: a randomized controlled proof-of-concept study. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2009;30:245–52.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  79. 79.
    Andrews C, Griffiths T, Kaufman J, Vergnolle N, Surette M, Rioux K. Mesalazine (5- aminosalicylic acid) alters faecal bacterial profiles, but not mucosal proteolytic activity in diarrhoea- predominant irritable bowel syndrome. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2011;34(3):374–83.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  80. 80.
    Lam C, Tan W, Leighton M, Hastings M, Lingaya M, Falcone Y, et al. A mechanistic multicentre, parallel group, randomised placebo-controlled trial of mesalazine for the treatment of IBS with diarrhea (IBS-D). Gut. 2016;65:91–9.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  81. 81.
    Erdogan A, Rao SS, Gulley D, Jacobs C, Lee YY, Badger C. Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth: duodenal aspiration vs glucose breath test. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2015;27:481–9.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  82. 82.
    Sharara AI, Aoun E, Abdul-Baki H, Mounzer R, Sidani S, Elhajj. A randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial of rifaximin in patients with abdominal bloating and flatulence. I. A C. Am J Gastroenterol. 2006; 101:326.Google Scholar
  83. 83.
    •• Pimentel M, Lembo A, Chey WD, Zakko S, Ringel Y, Yu J, et al. Rifaximin therapy for patients with irritable bowel syndrome without constipation. N Engl J Med. 2011;364:22–32. In this landmark trial, rifaximin has been shown to be effective in IBS-D and possibility post-infectious IBS too. CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  84. 84.
    Lembo A, Pimentel M, Rao SS, Schoenfeld P, Cash B, Weinstock LB, et al. Repeat treatment with Rifaximin is safe and effective in patients with diarrhea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome. Gastroenterology. 2016;151:1113–21.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  85. 85.
    Krause R, Ameen V, Gordon SH, West M, Heath AT, Perschy T, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study to assess efficacy and safety of 0.5 Mg and 1 mg alosetron in women with severe diarrhea-predominant IBS. Am J Gastroenterol. 2007;102:1709.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  86. 86.
    Fukudo S, Ida M, Akiho H, et al. Effect of ramosetron on stool consistency in male patients with irritable bowel syndrome with diarrhea. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2014;12:953–9.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  87. 87.
    Fukudo S, Kinoshita Y, Okumura T, Ida M, Akiho H, Nakashima Y, et al. Ramosetron reduces symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome with diarrhea and improves quality of life in women. Gastroenterology. 2016;150:358–66.e8.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  88. 88.
    Garsed K, Chernova J, Hastings M, Lam C, Marciani L, Singh G, et al. A randomised atrial of ondansetron for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome with diarrhoea. Gut. 2014;63:1617–25.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  89. 89.
    • Zheng Y, Yu T, Tang Y, Xiong W, Shen X, Jiang L, et al. Efficacy and safety of 5-hydroxytryptamine 3 receptor antagonists in irritable bowel syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. PLoS One. 2017;12:e0172846. Ramosetron, cilansetron, ondansetron, and alosetron are effective for treating non-constipated IBS and IBS-D. This systematic review found only rare serious adverse events associated with these drugs. CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  90. 90.
    Abbas Z, Yakoob J, Jafri W, Ahmad Z, Azam Z, Usman MW, et al. Cytokine and clinical response to saccharomyces boulardii therapy in diarrhea-dominant irritable bowel syndrome: a randomized trial. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2014;26:630–9.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  91. 91.
    Symons P, Jones M, Kellow J. Symptom provocation in irritable bowel syndrome effects of differing doses of fructose-sorbitol. Scand J Gastroenterol. 1992;27:940–4.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  92. 92.
    Goldstein R, Braverman D, Stankiewicz H. Carbohydrate malabsorption and the effect of dietary restriction on symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome and functional bowel complaints. Isr Med Assoc J. 2000;2:583–7.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  93. 93.
    Barrett JS, Gibson PR. Fermentable oligosaccharides, disaccharides, monosaccharides and polyols (FODMAPs) and nonallergic food intolerance: FODMAPs or food chemicals? Therap Adv Gastroenterol. 2012;5:261–8.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  94. 94.
    Marsh A, Eslick EM, Eslick GD. Does a diet low in FODMAPs reduce symptoms associated with functional gastrointestinal disorders? A comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Nutr. 2016;55:897–906.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  95. 95.
    Ruepert L, Quartero AO, de Wit NJ, van der Heijden GJ, Rubin G, Muris JWM. Bulking agents, antispasmodics and antidepressants for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome. Cochrane Database of Syst Rev. 2011;8:CD003460.Google Scholar
  96. 96.
    Khanna R, MacDonald JK, Levesque BG. Peppermint oil for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2014;48:505–12.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  97. 97.
    Dove LS, Lembo A, Randall CW, Fogel R, Andrae D, Davenport JM, et al. Eluxadoline benefits patients with irritable bowel syndrome with diarrhea in a phase 2 study. Gastroenterology. 2013;145:329–38.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  98. 98.
    Ford AC, Moayyedi P, Lacy BE, Lembo AJ, Saito YA, Schiller LR, et al. American College of Gastroenterology monograph on the management of irritable bowel syndrome and chronic idiopathic constipation. Am J Gastroenterol. 2014;109:S2–26.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2017

Authors and Affiliations

  • Yeong Yeh Lee
    • 1
  • Chandramouli Annamalai
    • 2
  • Satish S. C. Rao
    • 3
  1. 1.School of Medical SciencesUniversiti Sains MalaysiaKubang KerianMalaysia
  2. 2.Faculty of MedicineUniversiti Teknologi MARASungai BulohMalaysia
  3. 3.Section of Gastroenterology/Hepatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Medical College of Georgia, AD 2226, Digestive Health CenterAugusta UniversityAugustaUSA

Personalised recommendations