Extramural Venous Invasion (EMVI) and Tumour Regression Grading (TRG) as Potential Prognostic Factors for Risk Stratification and Treatment Decision in Rectal Cancer
- 109 Downloads
- 2 Citations
Abstract
Routine implementation of risk-adapted therapeutic strategies is one of the highest priorities in the management of locally advanced rectal cancer (LARC). Refinement of risk stratification and better treatment selection have the potential to minimise undesirable treatment-related side effects and improve oncological outcome of patients with this disease. Pathological extramural venous invasion (pEMVI) and tumour regression grade (pTRG) within the resection specimens have been historically regarded as prognostic factors for LARC. More recently, studies have increasingly reported suggesting that these parameters can be detected by high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging (i.e. mrEMVI and mrTRG) significantly widening the opportunities to assess individual patient risk and adapt the treatment plan accordingly. In this article, we review the available evidence on the prognostic role of pEMVI, pTRG, mrEMVI and mrTRG in LARC. Moreover, we discuss how using these prognostic factors in clinical practice may potentially promote the implementation of selected therapeutic strategies in this setting.
Keywords
Rectal cancer Extramural venous invasion pEMVI mrEMVI Tumour regression grading pTRG mrTRGNotes
Acknowledgments
Dr. Francesco Sclafani and Dr. Gina Brown are supported by the NIHR Biomedical Research Centre based at The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust and at The Institute of Cancer Research. Dr. Francesco Sclafani is also supported by the Peter Stebbings Memorial Charity.
Compliance with Ethical Standards
Conflict of Interest
Francesco Sclafani and Gina Brown declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Human and Animal Rights and Informed Consent
This article does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by any of the authors.
References
Papers of particular interest, published recently, have been highlighted as: • Of importance •• Of major importance
- 1.Fitzmaurice C, Dicker D, Pain A, et al. The global burden of cancer 2013. JAMA Oncol. 2015;1(4):505–27.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 2.Heald RJ. A new approach to rectal cancer. Br J Hosp Med. 1979;22(3):277–81.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- 3.Quirke P, Steele R, Monson J, et al. Effect of the plane of surgery achieved on local recurrence in patients operated with operable rectal cancer: a prospective study using data from the MRC CR07 and NCIC-CTGCO16 randomised clinical trial. Lancet. 2009;373(9666):821–8.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
- 4.Kapiteijn E, Marijnen CA, Nagtegaal ID, et al. Preoperative radiotherapy combined with total mesorectal excision for resectable rectal cancer. N Engl J Med. 2001;345(9):638–46.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 5.Sauer R, Becker H, Hohenberger W, et al. Preoperative versus postoperative chemoradiotherapy for rectal cancer. N Engl J Med. 2004;351(17):1731–40.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 6.Marijnen CA, van de Velde CJ, Putter H, et al. Impact of short-term preoperative radiotherapy on health-related quality of life and sexual functioning in primary rectal cancer: report of a multicenter randomized trial. J Clin Oncol. 2005;23(9):1847–58.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 7.Peeters KC, van de Velde CJ, Leer JW, et al. Late side effects of short-course preoperative radiotherapy combined with total mesorectal excision for rectal cancer: increased bowel dysfunction in irradiated patients—a Dutch Colorectal Cancer Group Study. J Clin Oncol. 2005;23(25):6199–206.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 8.Birgisson H, Påhlman L, Gunnarsson U, et al. Adverse effects of preoperative radiation therapy for rectal cancer: long-term follow-up of the Swedish Rectal Cancer Trial. J Clin Oncol. 2005;23(24):8697–705.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 9.Brændengen M, Tveit KM, Bruheim K, et al. Late patient-reported toxicity after preoperative radiotherapy or chemoradiotherapy in nonresectable rectal cancer: results from a randomized Phase III study. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2011;81(4):1017–24.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 10.Pachler J, Wille-Jorgensen P. Quality of life after rectal resection for cancer, with or without permanent colostomy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;12:CD004323.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- 11.Lange MM, van de Velde CJ. Urinary and sexual dysfunction after rectal cancer treatment. Nat Rev Urol. 2011;8(1):51–7.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 12.Augestad KM, Bakaki PM, Rose J, et al. Metastatic spread pattern after curative colorectal cancer surgery. A retrospective, longitudinal analysis. Cancer Epidemiol. 2015;39(5):734–44.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 13.Engelen SM, Maas M, Lahaye MJ, et al. Modern multidisciplinary treatment of rectal cancer based on staging with magnetic resonance imaging leads to excellent local control, but distant control remains a challenge. Eur J Cancer. 2013;49(10):2311–20.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 14.Taylor FG, Quirke P, Heald RJ, et al. Preoperative high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging can identify good prognosis stage I, II, and III rectal cancer best managed by surgery alone: a prospective, multicenter, European study. Ann Surg. 2011;253(4):711–9.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 15.Habr-Gama A, Sabbaga J, Gama-Rodrigues J, et al. Watch and wait approach following extended neoadjuvant chemoradiation for distal rectal cancer: are we getting closer to anal cancer management? Dis Colon Rectum. 2013;56(10):1109–17.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 16.Schrag D, Weiser MR, Goodman KA, et al. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy without routine use of radiation therapy for patients with locally advanced rectal cancer: a pilot trial. J Clin Oncol. 2014;32(6):513–8.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 17.Chua YJ, Barbachano Y, Cunningham D, et al. Neoadjuvant capecitabine and oxaliplatin before chemoradiotherapy and total mesorectal excision in MRI-defined poor-risk rectal cancer: a phase 2 trial. Lancet Oncol. 2010;11(3):241–8.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 18.Dewdney A, Cunningham D, Tabernero J, et al. Multicenter randomized phase II clinical trial comparing neoadjuvant oxaliplatin, capecitabine, and preoperative radiotherapy with or without cetuximab followed by total mesorectal excision in patients with high-risk rectal cancer (EXPERT-C). J Clin Oncol. 2012;30(14):1620–7.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 19.Sclafani F, Gonzalez D, Cunningham D, et al. TP53 mutational status and cetuximab benefit in rectal cancer: 5-year results of the EXPERT-C trial. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2014;106(7).Google Scholar
- 20.Weiss L, Grundmann E, Torhorst J, et al. Haematogenous metastatic patterns in colonic carcinoma: an analysis of 1541 necropsies. J Pathol. 1986;150(3):195–203.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 21.Blenkinsopp WK, Stewart-Brown S, Blesovsky L, et al. Histopathology reporting in large bowel cancer. J Clin Pathol. 1981;34(5):509–13.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
- 22.Labianca R, Nordlinger B, Beretta GD, et al. Early colon cancer: ESMO Clinical Practice Guidelines for diagnosis, treatment and follow-up. Ann Oncol. 2013;24 Suppl 6:vi64–72.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 23.NCCN Guidelines Version 3.2015 Colon Cancer. Available at: http://www.nccn.org
- 24.QUASAR Collaborative Group, Gray R, Barnwell J, McConkey C, et al. QUASAR: a randomised study of adjuvant chemotherapy versus observation including 3239 colorectal cancer patients. Lancet. 2007;370(9604):2020–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 25.••Talbot IC, Ritchie S, Leighton MH, et al. The clinical significance of invasion of veins by rectal cancer. Br J Surg. 1980;67(6):439–42. One of the first studies to demonstrate that tumour vascular invasion within the resection specimens is associated with poor prognosis of rectal cancer.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 26.Knudsen JB, Nilsson T, Sprechler M, et al. Venous and nerve invasion as prognostic factors in postoperative survival of patients with resectable cancer of the rectum. Dis Colon Rectum. 1983;26(9):613–7.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 27.Günther K, Dworak O, Remke S, et al. Prediction of distant metastases after curative surgery for rectal cancer. J Surg Res. 2002;103(1):68–78.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 28.Nissan A, Stojadinovic A, Shia J, et al. Predictors of recurrence in patients with T2 and early T3, N0 adenocarcinoma of the rectum treated by surgery alone. J Clin Oncol. 2006;24(25):4078–84.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 29.Talbot IC, Ritchie S, Leighton MH, et al. Spread of rectal cancer within veins. Histologic features and clinical significance. Am J Surg. 1981;141(1):15–7.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 30.Freedman LS, Macaskill P, Smith AN. Multivariate analysis of prognostic factors for operable rectal cancer. Lancet. 1984;2(8405):733–6.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 31.Harrison JC, Dean PJ, El-Zeky F, et al. From Dukes through Jass: pathological prognostic indicators in rectal cancer. Hum Pathol. 1994;25(5):498–505.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 32.Chand M, Bhangu A, Wotherspoon A, et al. EMVI-positive stage II rectal cancer has similar clinical outcomes as stage III disease following pre-operative chemoradiotherapy. Ann Oncol. 2014;25(4):858–63.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 33.••Brown G, Radcliffe AG, Newcombe RG, et al. Preoperative assessment of prognostic factors in rectal cancer using high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging. Br J Surg. 2003;90(3):355–64. First study to demonstrate that invasion of large extramural veins by rectal cancer is detectable by MRI and can predict tumour vascular invasion within the resection specimens.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 34.•Smith NJ, Barbachano Y, Norman AR, et al. Prognostic significance of magnetic resonance imaging detected extramural vascular invasion in rectal cancer. Br J Surg. 2008;95(2):229–36. Retrospective study showing that mrEMVI is a predictive factor of outcome in rectal cancer.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 35.•Sohn B, Lim JS, Kim H, et al. MRI-detected extramural vascular invasion is an independent prognostic factor for synchronous metastasis in patients with rectal cancer. Eur Radiol. 2015;25(5):1347–55. Retrospective study showing that mrEMVI is associated with an increased risk of distant metastases from rectal cancer.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 36.Koh DM, Smith NJ, Swift RI, et al. The relationship between MR demonstration of extramural venous invasion and nodal disease in rectal cancer. Clin Med Oncol. 2008;2:267–73.PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
- 37.MERCURY Study Group. Diagnostic accuracy of preoperative magnetic resonance imaging in predicting curative resection of rectal cancer: prospective observational study. BMJ. 2006;333(7572):779.CrossRefPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
- 38.MERCURY Study Group. Extramural depth of tumor invasion at thin-section MR in patients with rectal cancer: results of the MERCURY study. Radiology. 2007;243(1):132–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 39.Bugg WG, Andreou AK, Biswas D, et al. The prognostic significance of MRI-detected extramural venous invasion in rectal carcinoma. Clin Radiol. 2014;69(6):619–23.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 40.Yu SK, Tait D, Chau I, et al. MRI predictive factors for tumor response in rectal cancer following neoadjuvant chemoradiation therapy--implications for induction chemotherapy? Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2013;87(3):505–11.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 41.Chand M, Swift RI, Tekkis PP, et al. Extramural venous invasion is a potential imaging predictive biomarker of neoadjuvant treatment in rectal cancer. Br J Cancer. 2014;110(1):19–25.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
- 42.Sauer R, Liersch T, Merkel S, et al. Preoperative versus postoperative chemoradiotherapy for locally advanced rectal cancer: results of the German CAO/ARO/AIO-94 randomized phase III trial after a median follow-yp of 11 years. J Clin Oncol. 2012;30(16):1926–33.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 43.Sebag-Montefiore D, Stephens RJ, Steele R, et al. Preoperative radiotherapy versus selective postoperative chemoradiotherapy in patients with rectal cancer (MRC CR07 and NCIC-CTG C016): a multicentre, randomised trial. Lancet. 2009;373(9666):811–20.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
- 44.Park IJ, You YN, Agarwal A, et al. Neoadjuvant treatment response as an early response indicator for patients with rectal cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2012;30(15):1770–6.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
- 45.Martens MH, van Heeswijk MM, van den Broek JJ, et al. Prospective, multicenter validation study of magnetic resonance volumetry for response assessment after preoperative chemoradiation in rectal cancer: can the results in the literature be reproduced? Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2015;93(5):1005–14.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 46.MacGregor TP, Maughan TS, Sharma RA. Pathological grading of regression following neoadjuvant chemoradiation therapy: the clinical need is now. J Clin Pathol. 2012;65(10):867–71.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 47.Kim NK, Baik SH, Min BS, et al. A comparative study of volumetric analysis, histopathologic downstaging, and tumor regression grade in evaluating tumor response in locally advanced rectal cancer following preoperative chemoradiation. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2007;67(1):204–10.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 48.Memon S, Lynch AC, Akhurst T, et al. Systematic review of FDG-PET prediction of complete pathological response and survival in rectal cancer. Ann Surg Oncol. 2014;21(11):3598–607.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 49.Glynne-Jones R, Mawdsley S, Pearce T, et al. Alternative clinical end points in rectal cancer--are we getting closer? Ann Oncol. 2006;17(8):1239–48.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 50.Fernandez-Martos C, Guerrero A, Minsky B. Clinically relevant study end points in rectal cancer. Recent Results Cancer Res. 2012;196:3–19.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 51.Martin ST, Heneghan HM, Winter DC. Systematic review and meta-analysis of outcomes following pathological complete response to neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy for rectal cancer. Br J Surg. 2012;99(7):918–28.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 52.Maas M, Nelemans PJ, Valentini V, et al. Long-term outcome in patients with a pathological complete response after chemoradiation for rectal cancer: a pooled analysis of individual patient data. Lancet Oncol. 2010;11(9):835–44.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 53.••Dworak O, Keilholz L, Hoffmann A. Pathological features of rectal cancer after preoperative radiochemotherapy. Int J Colorectal Dis. 1997;12(1):19–23. First study to show that in rectal cancer it is feasible to classify response to pre-operative (chemo)radiotherapy by assessing the degree of tumour regression within resection specimens.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 54.Mandard AM, Dalibard F, Mandard JC, et al. Pathologic assessment of tumor regression after preoperative chemoradiotherapy of esophageal carcinoma. Clinicopathologic correlations. Cancer. 1994;73(11):2680–6.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 55.••Fokas E, Liersch T, Fietkau R, et al. Tumor regression grading after preoperative chemoradiotherapy for locally advanced rectal carcinoma revisited: updated results of the CAO/ARO/AIO-94 trial. J Clin Oncol. 2014;32(15):1554–62. Largest study to demonstrate that ypTRG after chemoradiotherapy in rectal cancer is an independent predictive factor for disease-free survival and distant metastases.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 56.Vecchio FM, Valentini V, Minsky BD, et al. The relationship of pathologic tumor regression grade (TRG) and outcomes after preoperative therapy in rectal cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2005;62(3):752–60.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 57.Benzoni E, Intersimone D, Terrosu G, et al. Prognostic value of tumour regression grading and depth of neoplastic infiltration within the perirectal fat after combined neoadjuvant chemo-radiotherapy and surgery for rectal cancer. J Clin Pathol. 2006;59(5):505–12.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
- 58.Mace AG, Pai RK, Stocchi L, et al. American Joint Committee on Cancer and College of American Pathologists regression grade: a new prognostic factor in rectal cancer. Dis Colon Rectum. 2015;58(1):32–44.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 59.Lindebjerg J, Hansborg N, Ploen J, et al. Factors influencing reproducibility of tumour regression grading after high-dose chemoradiation of locally advanced rectal cancer. Histopathology. 2011;59(1):18–21.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 60.Chetty R, Gill P, Govender D, et al. A multi-centre pathologist survey on pathological processing and regression grading of colorectal cancer resection specimens treated by neoadjuvant chemoradiation. Virchows Arch. 2012;460(2):151–5.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 61.Chetty R, Gill P, Govender D, et al. International study group on rectal cancer regression grading: interobserver variability with commonly used regression grading systems. Hum Pathol. 2012;43(11):1917–23.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 62.Wheeler JM, Warren BF, Mortensen NJ, et al. Quantification of histologic regression of rectal cancer after irradiation: a proposal for a modified staging system. Dis Colon Rectum. 2002;45:1051–6.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 63.Ryan R, Gibbons D, Hyland JM, et al. Pathological response following long-course neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy for locally advanced rectal cancer. Histopathology. 2005;47(2):141–6.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 64.Losi L, Luppi G, Gavioli M, et al. Prognostic value of Dworak grade of regression (GR) in patients with rectal carcinoma treated with preoperative radiochemotherapy. Int J Colorectal Dis. 2006;21(7):645–51.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 65.Beddy D, Hyland JM, Winter DC, et al. A simplified tumor regression grade correlates with survival in locally advanced rectal carcinoma treated with neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy. Ann Surg Oncol. 2008;15(12):3471–7.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 66.Suarez J, Vera R, Balén E, et al. Pathologic response assessed by Mandard grade is a better prognostic factor than down staging for disease-free survival after preoperative radiochemotherapy for advanced rectal cancer. Colorectal Dis. 2008;10(6):563–8.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 67.Edge S, Fritz A, Byrd D, et al. AJCC Cancer Staging Manual. 7th ed. New York: Springer; 2010.Google Scholar
- 68.Dhadda AS, Dickinson P, Zaitoun AM, et al. Prognostic importance of Mandard tumour regression grade following pre-operative chemo/radiotherapy for locally advanced rectal cancer. Eur J Cancer. 2011;47(8):1138–45.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 69.Roy P, Serra S, Kennedy E, et al. The prognostic value of grade of regression and oncocytic change in rectal adenocarcinoma treated with neo-adjuvant chemoradiotherapy. J Surg Oncol. 2012;105(2):130–4.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 70.Trakarnsanga A, Gönen M, Shia J, et al. Comparison of tumor regression grade systems for locally advanced rectal cancer after multimodality treatment. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2014;106(10).Google Scholar
- 71.Pettersson D, Lörinc E, Holm T, et al. Tumour regression in the randomized Stockholm III Trial of radiotherapy regimens for rectal cancer. Br J Surg. 2015;102(8):972–8.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
- 72.••Salerno GV, Daniels IR, Moran BJ, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging prediction of an involved surgical resection margin in low rectal cancer. Dis Colon Rectum. 2009;52(4):632–9. First study to propose an MRI-based classification system to assess the degree of tumour regression after neoadjuvant (chemo)radiotherapy in rectal cancer.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 73.••Patel UB, Taylor F, Blomqvist L, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging–detected tumor response for locally advanced rectal cancer predicts survival outcomes: MERCURY experience. J Clin Oncol. 2011;29(28):3753–60. First study in rectal cancer to demonstrate the prognostic role of tumour regression grade as assessed by MRI after neoadjuvant (chemo)radiotherapy.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 74.Van Gijn W, Marijnen CA, Nagtegaal ID, et al. Preoperative radiotherapy combined with total mesorectal excision for resectable rectal cancer: 12-year follow-up of the multicentre, randomised controlled TME trial. Lancet Oncol. 2011;12(6):575–82.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 75.André T, Boni C, Mounedji-Boudiaf L, et al. Oxaliplatin, fluorouracil, and leucovorin as adjuvant treatment for colon cancer. N Engl J Med. 2004;350(23):2343–51.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 76.Kuebler JP, Wieand HS, O’Connell MJ, et al. Oxaliplatin combined with weekly bolus fluorouracil and leucovorin as surgical adjuvant chemotherapy for stage II and III colon cancer: results from NSABP C-07. J Clin Oncol. 2007;25(16):2198–204.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 77.Petersen SH, Harling H, Kirkeby LT, et al. Postoperative adjuvant chemotherapy in rectal cancer operated for cure. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;3:CD004078.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- 78.Bosset JF, Calais G, Mineur L, et al. Fluorouracil-based adjuvant chemotherapy after preoperative chemoradiotherapy in rectal cancer: long-term results of the EORTC 22921 randomised study. Lancet Oncol. 2014;15(2):184–90.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 79.Sainato A, Cernusco LNV, Valentini V, et al. No benefit of adjuvant fluorouracil leucovorin chemotherapy after neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy in locally advanced cancer of the rectum (LARC): long term results of a randomized trial (I-CNR-RT). Radiother Oncol. 2014;113(2):223–9.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 80.Glynne-Jones R, Counsell N, Quirke P, et al. Chronicle: results of a randomised phase III trial in locally advanced rectal cancer after neoadjuvant chemoradiation randomising postoperative adjuvant capecitabine plus oxaliplatin (XELOX) versus control. Ann Oncol. 2014;25(7):1356–62.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 81.Breugom AJ, van Gijn W, Muller EW, et al. Adjuvant chemotherapy for rectal cancer patients treated with preoperative (chemo)radiotherapy and total mesorectal excision: a Dutch Colorectal Cancer Group (DCCG) randomized phase III trial. Ann Oncol. 2015;26(4):696–701.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 82.Breugom AJ, Swets M, Bosset JF, et al. Adjuvant chemotherapy after preoperative (chemo)radiotherapy and surgery for patients with rectal cancer: a systematic review and meta analysis of individual patient data. Lancet Oncol. 2015;16(2):200–7.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 83.Maas M, Nelemans PJ, Valentini V, et al. Adjuvant chemotherapy in rectal cancer: defining subgroups who may benefit after neoadjuvant chemoradiation and resection. Int J Cancer. 2015;137(1):212–20.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 84.Collette L, Bosset JF, den Dulk M, et al. Patients with curative resection of cT3-4 rectal cancer after preoperative radiotherapy or radiochemotherapy: does anybody benefit from adjuvant fluorouracil-based chemotherapy? A trial of the European Organisation for Research and Treatment of Cancer Radiation Oncology Group. J Clin Oncol. 2007;25(28):4379–86.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 85.Rödel C, Martus P, Papadoupolos T, et al. Prognostic significance of tumor regression after preoperative chemoradiotherapy for rectal cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2005;23(34):8688–96.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 86.Glimelius B, Tiret E, Cervantes A, et al. ESMO Guidelines Working Group. Rectal cancer: ESMO Clinical Practice Guidelines for diagnosis, treatment and follow-up. Ann Oncol. 2013;24 Suppl 6:vi81-8.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 87.Fernández-Martos C, Pericay C, Aparicio J, et al. Phase II, randomized study of concomitant chemoradiotherapy followed by surgery and adjuvant capecitabine plus oxaliplatin (CAPOX) compared with induction CAPOX followed by concomitant chemoradiotherapy and surgery in magnetic resonance imaging-defined, locally advanced rectal cancer: Grupo Cáncer de Recto 3 Study. J Clin Oncol. 2010;28(5):859–65.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 88.Glynne-Jones R, Anyamene N, Moran B, et al. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy in MRI-staged high-risk rectal cancer in addition to or as an alternative to preoperative chemoradiation? Ann Oncol. 2012;23(10):2517–26.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 89.Nilsson PJ, van Etten B, Hospers GA, et al. Short-course radiotherapy followed by neo-adjuvant chemotherapy in locally advanced rectal cancer--the RAPIDO trial. BMC Cancer. 2013;13:279.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
- 90.Habr-Gama A, Perez RO, Nadalin W, et al. Operative versus nonoperative treatment for stage 0 distal rectal cancer following chemoradiation therapy: long-term results. Ann Surg. 2004;240(4):711–7.PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
- 91.Garcia-Aguilar J, Renfro LA, Chow OS, et al. Organ preservation for clinical T2N0 distal rectal cancer using neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy and local excision (ACOSOG Z6041): results of an open-label, single-arm, multi-institutional, phase 2 trial. Lancet Oncol. 2015;16(15):1537–46.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 92.Dhadda AS, Zaitoun AM, Bessell EM. Regression of rectal cancer with radiotherapy with or without concurrent capecitabine—optimising the timing of surgical resection. Clin Oncol. 2009;21(1):23–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 93.Sloothaak DA, Geijsen DE, van Leersum NJ, et al. Optimal time interval between neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy and surgery for rectal cancer. Br J Surg. 2013;100(7):933–9.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 94.Probst CP, Becerra AZ, Aquina CT, et al. Extended intervals after neoadjuvant therapy in locally advanced rectal cancer: the key to improved tumor response and potential organ preservation. J Am Coll Surg. 2015;221(2):430–40.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 95.Huntington CR, Boselli D, Symanowski J, et al. Optimal timing of surgical resection after radiation in locally advanced rectal adenocarcinoma: an analysis of the National Cancer Database. Ann Surg Oncol. 2015;Oct 29 [Epub ahead of print].Google Scholar
- 96.Sclafani F, Cunningham D. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy without radiotherapy for locally advanced rectal cancer. Future Oncol. 2014;10(14):2243–57.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
- 97.PROSPECT: chemotherapy alone or chemotherapy plus radiation therapy in treating patients with locally advanced rectal cancer undergoing surgery. Available at https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01515787