Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Influence of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids on infant cognitive function

  • Published:
Lipids

Abstract

Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) are important for normal visual and cortical development. In a previous study of the effects of LCPUFA on cognitive function of term infants at the age of 3 mon, we indicated that infants with evidence of reduced growth parameters at birth and impaired attention control as manifested by a late peak fixation during infant habituation assessment may benefit from LCPUFA supplementation. The aim of this prospective study was to determine whether LCPUFA supplementation and late peak fixation are related to means-end problem-solving ability in these same infants at the age of 9 mon. Term infants (58) were randomized to one of two formulas containing either LCPUFA or no LCPUFA and completed 4 mon of feeding with their formula. Cognitive function was assessed at 3 mon of age by measures of infant habituation. Infants (20 LCPUFA and 20 no-LCPUFA) completed the problem-solving assessment at 9 mon. The no-LCPUFA group had lower scores on both measures of intention and number of solutions, but neither of these differences was significant. Analysis of covariance for the effects of group and peak fixation, covaried with gestation and birth weight, showed that the number of solutions was significantly reduced in the late peak-fixation infants receiving no LCPUFA (P<0.02). Intention scores tended to be reduced in this group (P<0.06). The late peak-fixation infants who received LCPUFA had solution and intention scores similar to early peak-fixation infants receiving LCPUFA or no LCPUFA. These findings suggest that in term infants who have reduced growth parameters at birth and who show evidence of impaired attention control, information processing and problem-solving ability in infancy may be enhanced by LCPUFA supplementation.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Abbreviations

AA:

arachidonic acid

ALA:

α-linolenic acid

ANCOVA:

analysis of covariance

DHA:

docosahexaenoic acid

LCPUFA:

long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids

MAC:

midarm circumference

OFC:

occipito-frontal circumference

References

  1. Hoefer, A., and Hardy, M.C. (1929) Later Development of Breast Fed and Artificially Fed Infants, J. Am. Med. Assoc. 92, 615–619.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Taylor, B. (1977) Breast Versus Bottle Feeding, New Zealand Med. J. 85, 235–238.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Lucas, A., Morley, R., Cole, T.J., Lister, G., and Leeson-Payne, C. (1992) Breast Milk and Subsequent Intelligence Quotient in Children Born Preterm, Lancet 339, 261–264.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Pollock, J.I. (1989) Mother's Choice to Provide Breast Milk and Developmental Outcome, Arch. Dis. Child. 64, 763–764.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Wright, P., and Deary, I.J. (1992) Breastfeeding and Intelligence, Lancet 339, 612.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Jacobson, S.W., and Jacobson, J.L. (1992) Breastfeeding and Intelligence, Lancet 339, 926.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Crawford, M.A., and Sinclair, A.J. (1971) Nutritional Influences in the Evolution of Mammalian Brain, in Lipids, Malnutrition and the Developing Brain, Ciba Foundation Symposium. (Elliot, K., and Knight, J., eds.) pp. 267–292, Elsevier, Amsterdam.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Martinez, M. (1992) Tissue Levels of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids During Early Human Development, J. Pediatr. 120 (suppl), S129-S138.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Wiedmann, T.S., Pates, R.D., Beach, J.M., Salmon, A., and Brown, M.F. (1988) Lipid-Protein Interactions Mediate the Photochemical Function of Rhodopsin, Biochemistry 27, 6469–6474.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Bazan, N.G. (1990) Supply of n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Their Significance in the Central Nervous System, in Nutrition and the Brain, Vol. 8. (Wurtman, R.J., and Wurtman, J.J., eds.) pp. 1–24, Raven, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Koletzko, B., Decsi, T., and Demmelmair, H. (1996) Arachidonic Acid Supply and Metabolism in Human Infants Born at Full Term, Lipids 31, 79–83.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Salem, N., Wegher, B., Mena, P., and Uauy, R. (1996) Arachidonic and Docosahexaenoic Acids Are Biosynthesized from Their 18-Carbon Precursors in Human Infants, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, 93, 49–54.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Carlson, S.E., Rhodes, P.G., and Ferguson, M.G. (1985) DHA Status of Preterm Infants at Birth and Following Feeding with Human Milk or Formula, Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 44, 798–804.

    Google Scholar 

  14. Clark, K.J., Makrides, M., Neumann, M.A., and Gibson, R.A. (1992) Determination of the Optimal Ratio of Linoleic to α-Linolenic Acid in Infant Formulas, J. Pediatr. 120, S151–158.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Farquharson, J., Jamieson, E.C., Abbasi, K.A., Patrick, W.J.A., Logan, R.W., and Cockburn, F. (1995) Effect of Diet on the Fatty Acid Composition of the Major Phospholipids of Infant Cerebral Cortex, Arch. Dis. Child. 72, 198–203.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Makrides, M., Simmer, K., Goggin, M., and Gibson, R.A. (1993) Erythrocyte Docosahexaenoic Acid Correlates with the Visual Response of Healthy, Term Infants, Pediatric Res. 33, 425–427.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Makrides, M., Neumann, M., Simmer, K., Pater, J., and Gibson, R.A. (1995) Are Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Essential Nutrients in Infancy? Lancet 345, 1463–1468.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Birch, E.E., Hoffman, D.R., Uauy, R., Birch, D.G., and Prestidge, C. (1998) Visual Acuity and the Essentiality of Docosahexaenoic Acid and Arachidonic Acid in the Diet of Term Infants, Pediatric Res. 44, 201–209.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Agostoni, C., Trojan, S., Bellù, R., Riva, E., and Giovannini, M. (1995) Neurodevelopmental Quotient of Healthy Term Infants at Four Months and Feeding Practice: The Role of Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids, Pediatr Res. 38, 262–266.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Agostoni, C., Trojan, S., Bellù, R., Riva, E., Bruzzese, M.G., and Giovannini, M. (1997) Developmental Quotient at 24 Months and Fatty Acid Composition of Diet in Early Infancy: A Follow-Up Study, Arch Dis. Child. 76, 421–424.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Bayley, N. (1993) The Bayley Scales of Infant Development, 2nd edn., pp. 1–374, The Psychological Corporation, San Antonio.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Slater, A. (1995) Individual Differences in Infancy and Later IQ, J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 36, 69–112.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. McCall, R.B. (1979) The Development of Intellectual Functioning in Infancy and the Prediction of Later IQ, in Handbook of Infant Development (Osofsky, J.D. ed.) pp. 707–741. Wiley, Chichester.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Bornstein, M.H. (1985) Habituation of Attention as a Measure of Visual Information Processing in Human Infants: Summary, Systematisation, and Synthesis, in Measurement of Audition and Vision in the First Year of Postnatal Life: A Methodological Overview (Gottleib, G., and Krasnegor, N.A., eds.) pp. 253–300, Ablex, Norwood.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Colombo, J., and Mitchell, D.W. (1990) Individual Differences in Early Visual Attention: Fixation Time and Information Processing, in Individual Differences in Infancy: Reliability, Stability, and Prediction (Colombo, J., and Fagen, J.W., eds.) pp. 193–228, Erlbaum, Hillsdale.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Bornstein, M.H., and Sigman, M.D. (1986) Continuity in Mental Development from Infancy, Child Dev. 57, 251–274.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Laucht, M., Esser, G., and Schmidt, M.H. (1991) Contrasting Infant Predictors of Later Cognitive Functioning, J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 35, 649–662.

    Google Scholar 

  28. McCall, R.B. (1994) What Process Mediates Predictions of Childhood IQ from Infant Habituation and Recognition Memory? Speculations on the Role of Inhibition and the Rate of Information Processing, Intelligence 18, 107–125.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Colombo, J. (1993) Infant Cognition: Predicting Later Intellectual Functioning, pp. 1–153, Sage, London.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Rose, S.A., and Feldman, J.F. (1997) Memory and Speed: Their Role in the Relation of Infant Information Processing to Later IQ, Child Dev. 68, 630–641.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Jacobson, S.W., Jacobson, J.J., O'Neill, J.M., Padgett, R.J., Frankowski, J.J., and Bihum, J.T. (1992) Visual Expectation and Dimensions of Infant Information Processing, Child Dev. 63, 711–724.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Deary, I. (1988) Intelligence and Encoding Speed in Infants, Adults, and Children, Eur. Bull. Cognit. Psychology 8, 462–468.

    Google Scholar 

  33. Lecuyer, R. (1989) Habituation and Attention, Novelty and Cognition: Where is the Continuity? Human Dev, 32, 148–157.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Bornstein, M.H., and Benasich, A.A. (1986) Infant Habituation: Assessments of Individual Differences and Short-Term Reliability at Five Months, Child Dev. 57, 87–99.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Willatts, P., Forsyth, J.S., DiModugno, M.K., Varma, S., and Colvin, M. (1996) The Effects of Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids on Infant Attention and Cognitive Behaviour, in Major Controversies in Infant Nutrition (David, T.J., ed.) pp. 57–70, Royal Society of Medicine Press, London.

    Google Scholar 

  36. Willatts, P. (1989) Development of Problem Solving in Infancy, in Infant Development (Slater, A., and Bremner, J.G., eds.) pp. 143–182, Erlbaum, London.

    Google Scholar 

  37. Willatts, P. (1984) Stages in the Development of Intentional Search by Young Infants Dev. Psychol. 20, 389–396.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Willatts, P. (1984) The Stage-IV Infant's Solution of Problems Requiring the Use of Supports, Infant Behav. Dev. 7, 25–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Willatts, P. (1998) Development of Means-End Behavior in Young Infants: Pulling a Support to Retrieve a Distant Object, Dev. Psychol. in press.

  40. Willatts, P. (1997) Beyond the “Couch Potato” Infant: How Infants Use Their Knowledge to Regulate Action, Solve Problems, and Achieve Goals, in Infant Development: Recent Advances (Bremner, J.G., Slater, A., and Butterworth, G., eds.) pp. 109–135, Psychology Press, Hove.

    Google Scholar 

  41. Office of Population Censuses and Surveys (1990) Standard Occupational Classification Vol. 1, pp. 1–281; Vol. 2, pp. 1–128; Vol. 3, pp. 1–56. HMSO, London.

    Google Scholar 

  42. Meadows, N.J., Till, J., Leaf, A., Hughes, E., Jani, B., and Larcher, V. (1986) Screening for Intrauterine Growth Retardation Using Ratio of Mid-Arm Circumference to Occipitofrontal Circumference, Br. Med. J. 292, 1039–1040.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Chard, T., Costeloe, K., and Leaf, A. (1992) Evidence of Growth Retardation in Neonates of Apparently Normal Weight, Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol. 45, 59–62.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Kanawati, A.A., and McLaren, D.S. (1970) Assessment of Marginal Malnutrition, Nature 228, 573–574.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. SPSS Inc. (1993) SPSS for Windows Base System User's Guide, pp. 1–385. SPSS Inc., Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Leaf, A.A., Leighfield, M.J., Costeloe, K.L., and Crawford, M.A. (1992) Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Fetal Growth, Early Hum. Dev. 30, 183–191.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Jensen, C.L., Chen, H., Fraley, J.K., Anderson, R.E. and Heird, W.C. (1996) Biochemical Effects of Dietary Linoleic/α-Linolenic Acid Ratio in Term Infants, Lipids 31, 107–113.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Jensen, C.L., Prager, T.C., Fraley, J.K., Chen, H., Anderson, R.E., and Heird, W.C. (1997) Effect of Dietary Linoleic/Alpha-Linolenic Acid Ratio on Growth and Visual Function of Term Infants, J. Pediatr. 131, 200–209.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Carlson, S.E., and Werkman, S.H. (1996) A Randomized Trial of Visual Attention of Preterm Infants Fed Docosahexaenoic Acid Until Two Months, Lipids 31, 85–90.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Jackson, K.A., and Gibson, R.A. (1989) Weaning Foods Cannot Replace Breast Milk as a Source of Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids, Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 50, 980–982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Kaplan, P.S., Werner, J.S., and Rudy, J.W. (1991) Implications of a Sensitization Process for the Analysis of Infant Visual Attention, in Newborn Attention: Biological Constraints and the Influence of Experience (Weiss, M.J.S., and Zelazo, P.R., eds.) pp. 278–307, Ablex, Norwood.

    Google Scholar 

  52. Werkman, S.H., and Carlson, S.E. (1996) A Randomized Trial of Visual Attention of Preterm Infants Fed Docosahexaenoic Acid Until Nine Months, Lipids 31, 91–97.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Johnson, M.H., Posner, M.I., and Rothbart, M.K. (1991) Components of Visual Orienting in Early Infancy: Contingency Learning: Anticipatory Looking, and Disengaging, J. Cognit. Neurosci. 3, 335–343.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Hood, B.M., and Atkinson, J. (1993) Disengaging Visual Attention in the Infant and Adult, Infant Behav. Dev. 16, 405–422.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Johnson, M.H. (1995) The Development of Visual Attention: A Cognitive Neuroscience Perspective, in The Cognitive Neurosciences (Gazzaniga, M.S., ed.) pp. 735–747, MIT Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  56. Diamond, A. (1990) The Development and Neural Bases of Memory Functions as Indexed by the AB and Delayed Response Tasks in Human Infants and Infant Monkeys, Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 608, 267–317.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Diamond, A., Prevor, M.B., Callender, G., and Druin, D.P. (1998) Prefrontal Cortex Cognitive Deficits in Children Treated Early and Continuously for PKU, Monogr. Soc. Res. Child. Dev. serial no. 252, 62, (4).

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of Dundee, DD1 4HN, Dundee, Scotland, UK

    P. Willatts & M. K. DiModugno

  2. Department of Child Health, University of Dundee, DD1 4HN, Dundee, Scotland, UK

    J. S. Forsyth, S. Varma & M. Colvin

Authors
  1. P. Willatts
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. J. S. Forsyth
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. M. K. DiModugno
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. S. Varma
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. M. Colvin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to P. Willatts.

About this article

Cite this article

Willatts, P., Forsyth, J.S., DiModugno, M.K. et al. Influence of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids on infant cognitive function. Lipids 33, 973–980 (1998). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11745-998-0294-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11745-998-0294-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation