Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

Quantifying microplastic pollution on sandy beaches: the conundrum of large sample variability and spatial heterogeneity

  • Research Article
  • Published:
Environmental Science and Pollution Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Despite the environmental risks posed by microplastic pollution, there are presently few standardized protocols for monitoring these materials within marine and coastal habitats. We provide a robust comparison of methods for sampling microplastics on sandy beaches using pellets as a model and attempt to define a framework for reliable standing stock estimation. We performed multiple comparisons to determine: (1) the optimal size of sampling equipment, (2) the depth to which samples should be obtained, (3) the optimal sample resolution for cross-shore transects, and (4) the number of transects required to yield reproducible along-shore estimates across the entire sections of a beach. Results affirmed that the use of a manual auger with a 20-cm diameter yielded the best compromise between reproducibility (i.e., standard deviation) and sampling/processing time. Secondly, we suggest that sediments should be profiled to a depth of at least 1 m to fully assess the depth distribution of pellets. Thirdly, although sample resolution did not have major consequence for overall density estimates, using 7-m intervals provides an optimal balance between precision (SD) and effort (total sampling time). Finally, and perhaps most importantly, comparing the minimum detectable difference yielded by different numbers of transects along a given section of beach suggests that estimating absolute particle density is probably unviable for most systems and that monitoring might be better accomplished through hierarchical or time series sampling efforts. Overall, while our study provides practical information that can improve sampling efforts, the heterogeneous nature of microplastic pollution poses a major conundrum to reproducible monitoring and management of this significant and growing problem.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Allsopp M, Walters A, Santillo D, Johnston P (2005) Plastic debris in the world’s oceans. Greenpeace International, Amsterdam 44 p. http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/marinelitter/publications/docs/plastic_ocean_report.pdf

    Google Scholar 

  • Angeli A, Zara FJ, Turra A, Gorman D (2016) Towards a standard measure of sea anemone size: assessing the accuracy and precision of morphological measures for cantilever-like animals. Mar Ecol. doi:10.1111/maec.12315

    Google Scholar 

  • Antunes JC, Frias JPL, Micaelo AC, Sobral P (2013) Resin pellets from beaches of the Portuguese coast and adsorbed persistent organic pollutants. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 130:62–69

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ashton K, Holmes L, Turner A (2010) Association of metals with plastic production pellets in the marine environment. Mar Pollut Bull 60:2050–2055

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Corcoran PL, Biesinger MC, Grifi M (2009) Plastics and beaches: a degrading relationship. Mar Pollut Bull 58:80–84

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Costa MF, Ivar do Sul JA, Silva-Cavalcanti JS, Araújo MCB, Spengler A, Tourinho PS (2010) On the importance of size of plastic fragments and pellets on the strandline: a snapshot of Brazilian beach. Environ Monit Assess 168:299–304

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Defeo O, Rueda M (2002) Spatial structure, sampling design and abundance estimates in sandy beach macroinfauna: some warnings and new perspective. Mar Biol 140:1215–1225

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Derraik JGB (2002) The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: a review. Mar Pollut Bull 44:842–852

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Endo S, Takizawa R, Okuda K, Takada H, Chiba K, Kanehiro H, Ogi H, Yamashita R, Date T (2005) Concentration of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in beached resin pellets: variability among individual particles and regional differences. Mar Pollut Bull 50:1103–1114

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eriksson C, Burton H (2003) Origins and biological accumulation of small plastic particles in Fur-seal Scats from Macquarie Island. Ambio 32:380–384

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ferguson GJ, Ward TM, Gorman D (2015) Recovery of a surf clam Donax deltoides population in southern Australia: successful outcomes of fishery-independent surveys. North Am J Fish Mana 35:1185–1195

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fisner M, Taniguchi S, Moreira F, Bícego MC, Turra A (2013a) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in plastic pellets: variability in the concentration and composition at different sediment depths in a sandy beach. Mar Pollut Bull 70(1–2):219–226

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fisner M, Taniguchi S, Majer AP, Bícego MC, Turra A (2013b) Concentration and composition of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in plastic pellets: implications for small-scale diagnostic and environmental monitoring. Mar Pollut Bull 76:349–354

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fisner M, Majer A, Taniguchi S, Bícego M, Turra A, Gorman D. (Unpublished data) Color and composition determine the concentration and composition of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in plastic pellets

  • Frias JPGL, Sobral P, Ferreira A (2010) Organic pollutants in microplastics from two Portuguese beaches. Mar Pollut Bull 60:1988–1992

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gorman D, Mayfield S, Ward TM, Burch P (2011) Optimising harvest strategies in a multi-species bivalve fishery. Fisheries Manag Ecol 18:270–281

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gregorio H P (2009) Modelagem Numérica da Dispersão da Pluma do Emissário Submarino de Santos. [s.l.] Universidade de São Paulo

  • Heskett M, Takada H, Yamashita R, Yuyama M, Ito M, Geok YB, Ogata Y, Kwan C, Heckhausen A, Taylor H, Powell T, Morishige C, Young D, Patterson H, Robertson B, Bailey E, Mermoz J (2012) Measurement of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in plastic resin pellets from remote islands: toward establishment of background concentrations for International pellet watch. Mar Pollut Bull 64:445–448

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hidalgo-Ruz V, Gutow L, Thompson RC, Thiel M (2012) Microplastics in the marine environment: a review of the methods used for identification and quantification. Environ Sci Technol 46:3060–3075

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hirai H, Takada H, Ogata Y, Yamashita R, Mizukawa K, Saha M, Kwan C, Moore C, Gray H, Laursen D, Zettler ER, Farrington JW, Reddy CM, Peacock EE, Ward MW (2011) Organic micropollutants in marine plastics from the open ocean and remote and urban beaches. Mar Pollut Bull 62:1683–1692

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Holmes LA, Turner A, Thompson RC (2012) Adsorption of trace metals to plastic resin pellets in the marine environment. Environ Pollut 160:42–48

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Italiani DM (2014) Resposta morfodinâmica à alimentação artificial da Ponta da Praia, Santos, SP. [s.l.] Universidade de São Paulo

  • Ivar do Sul JÁ, Spengler A, Costa MF (2009) Here, there and everywhere. Small plastic fragments and pellets on beaches of Fernando de Noronha (equatorial Western Atlantic). Mar Pollut Bull 58:1229–1244

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karapanagioti HK, Klontza I (2008) Testing phenanthrene distribution properties of virgin plastic pellets and plastic eroded pellets found on Lesvos island beaches (Greece). Mar Environ Res 65:283–290

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Karapanagioti HK, Endo S, Ogata Y, Takada H (2011) Diffuse pollution by persistent organic pollutants as measured in plastic pellets sampled from various beaches in Greece. Mar Pollut Bull 62:312–317

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Krebs CJ (1999) Ecological methodology, 2nd edn. Addison Wesley Longman, Menlo Park

    Google Scholar 

  • Kusui T, Noda M (2003) International survey on the distribution of stranded and buried litter on beaches along the sea of Japan. Mar Pollut Bull 47:175–179

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Laist DW (1987) Overview of the biological effects of lost and discarded plastic debris in the marine environment. Mar Pollut Bull 18:319–326 Supplement

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laist DW (1997) Impacts of marine debris: entanglement of marine life in debris including a comprehensive list of species with entanglement and ingestion records. In: Coe JM, Rogers DB (eds) Marine debris: sources, impacts and solutions. Springer-Verlag, New York, pp 99–140

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Law KL, Morét-Ferguson S, Maximenko NA, Prokurowski G, Peacock EE, Hafner J, Reddy CM (2012) Plastic accumulation in the North Atlantic subtropical gyre. Science 329:1185–1188

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Magini C, Harari J, Abessa DM (2007) Circulação recente de sedimentos costeiros nas praias de santos durante eventos de tempestades: Dados para a gestão de impactos físicos costeiros. p. 349–355

  • Majer AP, Vedolin MC, Turra A (2012) Plastic pellets as oviposition site and means of dispersal for the ocean-skater insect Halobates. Mar Pollut Bull 64:1143–1147

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Martins J, Sobral P (2011) Plastic marine debris on the Portuguese coastline: a matter of size? Mar Pollut Bull 62:2649–2653

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mato Y, Isobe T, Takada H, Kanehiro H, Ohtake C, Kaminuma T (2001) Plastic resin pellets as a transport medium toxic chemicals in the marine environment. Environ Sci Technol 35:318–324

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McDermid KJ, McMullen TL (2004) Quantitative analysis of small-plastic debris on beaches in the Hawaiian archipelago. Mar Pollut Bull 48:790–794

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moore CJ (2008) Synthetic polymers in the marine environment: a rapidly increasing, long-term threat. Environ Res 108:131–139

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moreira FT, Balthazar-Silva D, Barbosa L, Turra A (2016a) Revealing accumulation zones of plastic pellets in sandy beaches. Environ Pollut. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2016.07.006

    Google Scholar 

  • Moreira FT, Prantoni AL, Martini B, de Abreu MA, Stoiev SB, Turra A (2016b) Small-scale temporal and spatial variability in the abundance of plastic pellets on sandy beaches: methodological considerations for estimating the input of microplastics. Mar Pollut Bull 102:114–121

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ng KL, Obbard JP (2006) Prevalence of microplastics in Singapore’s coastal marine environment. Mar Pollut Bull 52:761–767

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ogata Y, Takada H, Mizukawa K, Hirai H, Iwasa S, Endo S, Mato Y, Saha M, Okuda K, Nakashima A, Murakami M, Zurcher N, Booyatumanondo R, Zakaria MP, Dung LQ, Gordon M, Miguez C, Suzuki S, Moore C, Karapanagioti HK, Weerts S, McClurg T, Burres E, Smith W, Van Velkenburg M, Lang JS, Lang RC, Laursen D, Danner B, Stewardson N, Thompson RC (2009) International pellet watch: global monitoring of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in coastal waters. 1. Initial phase data on PCBs, DDTs, and HCHs. Mar Pollut Bull 58:1437–1446

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pereira C (2014) Microplásticos no ambiente marinho: mapeamento de fontes e identificação de mecanismos de gestão para minimização de perda de pellets plásticos. [s.l.] Universidade de São Paulo

  • Pruter A (1987) Sources, quantities and distribution of persistent plastics in the marine environment. Mar Pollut Bull 18:305–310

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rios LM, Jones PR, Moore C, Narayan UV (2010) Quantitation of persistent organic pollutants adsorbed on plastic debris from the northern Pacific Gyre’s “eastern garbage patch”. J Environ Monit 12:2226–2236

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan PG, Moore CJ, Van Franeker JA, Moloney CL (2009) Monitoring the abundance of plastic debris in the marine environment (review). Philos Trans R Soc B 364:1999–2012

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sheavly SB, Register KM (2007) Marine debris & plastics: environmental concerns, sources, impacts and solutions. J Polymer Environ 15:301–305

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Taniguchi S, Colabuono FI, Dias PS, Oliveira R, Fisner M, Turra A, Izar GM, Abessa DMS, Saha M, Hosoda J, Yamashita R, Takada H, Lourenço RA, Magalhães CA, Bícego MC, Montone RC (2016) Spatial variability in persistent organic pollutants and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons found in beach-stranded pellets along the coast of the state of São Paulo, Southeastern Brazil. Mar Pollut Bull 106(1–2):87–94

  • Turner A, Holmes L (2011) Occurrence, distribution and characteristics of beached plastic production pellets on the island of Malta (central Mediterranean). Mar Pollut Bull 62:377–381

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Turra A, Manzano AB, Dias RJS, Mahiques MM, Barbosa L, Balthazar-Silva D, Moreira FT (2014) Three-dimensional distribution of plastic pellets in Sandy beaches: shifting paradigms. Sci Rep 4:4435

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Underwood AJ (1997) Experiments in ecology: their logical design and interpretation using analysis of variance. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 504p

    Google Scholar 

  • UNEP 2016. Marine plastic debris and microplastics: global lessons and research to inspire action and guide policy change. In: Programme, U.N.E. (Ed.), Nairobi.

  • Zar JH (1999) Biostatistical analysis, 4th edn. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs 718p.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This research was funded jointly by the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES) through a Ph.D. scholarship to MF, by the Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) through a postdoctoral scholarship to DG (2013/07576-5), and by the National Council for Scientific and Technological Research (CNPq) to AT (301240/2006-0). We would also like to thank the two anonymous reviewers for their suggestions and comments.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Mara Fisner.

Additional information

Responsible editor: Philippe Garrigues

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Fisner, M., Majer, A.P., Balthazar-Silva, D. et al. Quantifying microplastic pollution on sandy beaches: the conundrum of large sample variability and spatial heterogeneity. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24, 13732–13740 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-8883-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-8883-y

Keywords

Navigation