The Two Sources of Solar Energetic Particles
Abstract
Evidence for two different physical mechanisms for acceleration of solar energetic particles (SEPs) arose 50 years ago with radio observations of type III bursts, produced by outward streaming electrons, and type II bursts from coronal and interplanetary shock waves. Since that time we have found that the former are related to “impulsive” SEP events from impulsive flares or jets. Here, resonant stochastic acceleration, related to magnetic reconnection involving open field lines, produces not only electrons but 1000-fold enhancements of 3He/4He and of (Z>50)/O. Alternatively, in “gradual” SEP events, shock waves, driven out from the Sun by coronal mass ejections (CMEs), more democratically sample ion abundances that are even used to measure the coronal abundances of the elements. Gradual events produce by far the highest SEP intensities near Earth. Sometimes residual impulsive suprathermal ions contribute to the seed population for shock acceleration, complicating the abundance picture, but this process has now been modeled theoretically. Initially, impulsive events define a point source on the Sun, selectively filling few magnetic flux tubes, while gradual events show extensive acceleration that can fill half of the inner heliosphere, beginning when the shock reaches ∼2 solar radii. Shock acceleration occurs as ions are scattered back and forth across the shock by resonant Alfvén waves amplified by the accelerated protons themselves as they stream away. These waves also can produce a streaming-limited maximum SEP intensity and plateau region upstream of the shock. Behind the shock lies the large expanse of the “reservoir”, a spatially extensive trapped volume of uniform SEP intensities with invariant energy-spectral shapes where overall intensities decrease with time as the enclosing “magnetic bottle” expands adiabatically. These reservoirs now explain the slow intensity decrease that defines gradual events and was once erroneously attributed solely to slow outward diffusion of the particles. At times the reservoir from one event can contribute its abundances and even its spectra as a seed population for acceleration by a second CME-driven shock wave. Confinement of particles to magnetic flux tubes that thread their source early in events is balanced at late times by slow velocity-dependent migration through a tangled network produced by field-line random walk that is probed by SEPs from both impulsive and gradual events and even by anomalous cosmic rays from the outer heliosphere. As a practical consequence, high-energy protons from gradual SEP events can be a significant radiation hazard to astronauts and equipment in space and to the passengers of high-altitude aircraft flying polar routes.
Keywords
Solar energetic particles Shock waves Coronal mass ejections Solar flaresNotes
Acknowledgements
This manuscript is based on a lecture given by the author upon receipt the 2012 George Ellery Hale Prize from the Solar Physics Division of the American Astronomical Society. It was funded, in part, by NASA grant NNX08AQ02G. The author thanks Ed Cliver, Steve Kahler, Frank McDonald, Chee Ng, Lun Tan, and Allan Tylka for their helpful comments and for discussions relating to this manuscript.
References
- O. Adriani et al., Astrophys. J. 742, 102A (2011) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- N. Agueda, D. Lario, V. Ontiveros, E. Kilpua, B. Sanahuja, R. Vainio, Sol. Phys. (2012). doi: 10.1007/s11207-012-9959-y MATHGoogle Scholar
- J.D. Anglin, Astrophys. J. 198, 733 (1975) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- M.J. Aschwanden, Space Sci. Rev. 101, 1 (2002) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- W.I. Axford, Proc. 17th Int. Cosmic Ray Conf. Paris 12, 155 (1981) Google Scholar
- H.M. Bain, S. Krucker, L. Glesener, R.P. Lin, Astrophys. J. 750, 44 (2012) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- J.L. Barth, C.S. Dyer, E.G. Stassinopoulos, IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 50, 466 (2003) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- M. Battarbee, T. Laitinen, R. Vainio, Astron. Astrophys. 535, A34 (2011) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- A.R. Bell, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 182, 147 (1978) ADSGoogle Scholar
- A.O. Benz, Living Rev. Sol. Phys. 5, 1 (2008) ADSGoogle Scholar
- D.B. Berdichevsky, A. Szabo, R.P. Lepping, A.F. Viñas, F. Mariana, J. Geophys. Res. 105, 27289 (2000) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- D.B. Berdichevsky, D.V. Reames, C.C. Wu, R. Schwenn, R.P. Lepping, R.J. MacDowall, C.J. Farrugia, J.-L. Bougeret, C.K. Ng, A.J. Lazarus, Adv. Space Res. 43, 113 (2009) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- D.L. Bertsch, C.E. Fichtel, D.V. Reames, Astrophys. J. Lett. 157, L53 (1969) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- H.H. Breneman, E.C. Stone, Astrophys. J. Lett. 299, L57 (1985) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- D.A. Bryant, T.L. Cline, U.D. Desai, F.B. McDonald, J. Geophys. Res. 67, 4983 (1962) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- L.F. Burlaga, E. Sittler, F. Mariani, R. Schwenn, J. Geophys. Res. 86, 6673 (1981) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- L. Burlaga, D. Berdichevsky, N. Gopalswamy, R. Lepping, T. Zurbuchen, J. Geophys. Res. 108, 1425 (2003) CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- E. Caffau, H.-G. Ludwig, M. Steffen, B. Freytag, P. Bonofacio, Sol. Phys. 268, 255–269 (2011) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- H.V. Cane, S.W. Kahler, N.R. Sheeley Jr., J. Geophys. Res. 91, 13321 (1986) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- H.V. Cane, D.V. Reames, T.T. von Rosenvinge, J. Geophys. Res. 93, 9555 (1988) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- H.V. Cane, T.T. von Rosenvinge, C.M.S. Cohen, R.A. Mewaldt, Geophys. Res. Lett. 30(12), 8017 (2003) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- R.C. Carrington, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 20, 13 (1860) ADSGoogle Scholar
- E.E. Chollet, J. Giacalone, Astrophys. J. 688, 64 (2011) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- T.L. Cline, F.B. McDonald, Sol. Phys. 5, 507 (1968) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- E.W. Cliver, in High Energy Solar Physics, ed. by R. Ramaty, N. Mandzhavidze, X.-M. Hua. AIP Conf. Proc., vol. 374 (AIP Press, Woodbury, 1996), p. 45 Google Scholar
- E.W. Cliver, Astrophys. J. 639, 1206 (2006) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- E.W. Cliver, in Proc. IAU Symposium 258, vol. 2008, ed. by N. Gopalswamy, D.F. Webb (2009a), p. 401 Google Scholar
- E.W. Cliver, Cent. Eur. Astrophys. Bull. 33, 253 (2009b) ADSGoogle Scholar
- E.W. Cliver, A.G. Ling, Astrophys. J. 658, 1349 (2007) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- E.W. Cliver, S.W. Kahler, M.A. Shea, D.F. Smart, Astrophys. J. 260, 362 (1982) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- E.W. Cliver, D.J. Forrest, H.V. Cane, D.V. Reames, R.E. McGuire, T.T. von Rosenvinge, Astrophys. J. 343, 953 (1989) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- E.W. Cliver, D.F. Webb, R.A. Howard, Sol. Phys. 187, 89 (1999) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- E.W. Cliver, S.W. Kahler, D.V. Reames, Astrophys. J. 605, 902 (2004) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- E.W. Cliver, N.V. Nitta, B.J. Thompson, J. Zhang, Sol. Phys. 225, 105 (2005) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- E.W. Cliver, A.G. Ling, A. Belov, S. Yashiro, Astrophys. J. Lett. 756, L29 (2012) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- C.M.S. Cohan, R.A. Mewaldt, R.A. Leske, A.C. Cummings, E.C. Stone, M.E. Wiedenbeck, T.T. von Rosenvinge, G.M. Mason, Space Sci. Rev. 130, 183 (2007) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- M.A. Coplan, K.W. Ogilvie, P. Bochsler, J. Geiss, Sol. Phys. 93, 415 (1985) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- F.A. Cucinotta, S. Hu, N.A. Schwadron, K. Kozarev, L.W. Townsend, M.-H.Y. Kim, Space Weather 8, S00E09 (2010) CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- E.I. Daibog, V.G. Stolpovskii, S.W. Kahler, Cosm. Res. 41, 128 (2003) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- R.B. Decker, J. Geophys. Res. 86, 4537 (1981) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- M.I. Desai, G.M. Mason, J.R. Dwyer, J.E. Mazur, R.E. Gold, S.M. Krimigis, C.W. Smith, R.M. Skoug, Astrophys. J. 588, 1149 (2003) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- M.I. Desai, G.M. Mason, M.E. Wiedenbeck, C.M.S. Cohen, J.E. Mazur, J.R. Dwyer, R.E. Gold, S.M. Krimigis, Q. Hu, C.W. Smith, R.M. Skoug, Astrophys. J. 661, 1156 (2004) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- M.I. Desai, G.M. Mason, R.E. Gold, S.M. Krimigis, C.M.S. Cohen, R.A. Mewaldt, J.E. Mazur, J.R. Dwyer, Astrophys. J. 649, 740 (2006) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- M. Desai, M. Dayeh, C. Smith, G. Mason, M. Lee, Physics of the Heliosphere: A 10 Year Retrospective. AIP Conf. Proc., vol. 1436 (2012), p. 110 Google Scholar
- W.F. Dietrich, Astrophys. J. 180, 955 (1973) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- R. DiFabio, Z. Guo, E. Möbius, B. Klecker, H. Kucharek, G.M. Mason, M. Popecki, Astrophys. J. 687, 623 (2008) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- J.F. Drake, M. Swizdak, Space Sci. Rev. (2012). doi: 10.1007/s11214-012-9903-3 MATHGoogle Scholar
- J.F. Drake, P.A. Cassak, M.A. Shay, M. Swisdak, E. Quataert, Astrophys. J. Lett. 700, L16 (2009) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- W. Dröge, R. Muller-Mellin, E.W. Cliver, Proc. 22nd Int. Cosmic-Ray Conf. (Dublin) 3, 300 (1991) Google Scholar
- D. Ellison, R. Ramaty, Astrophys. J. 298, 400 (1985) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- C.E. Fichtel, D.E. Guss, Phys. Rev. Lett. 6, 495 (1961) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- L.A. Fisk, Astrophys. J. 224, 1048 (1978) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- A. Fludra, J.T. Schmelz, Astron. Astrophys. 348, 286 (1999) ADSGoogle Scholar
- S.E. Forbush, Phys. Rev. 70, 771 (1946) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- U. Ganse, P. Kilian, R. Vainio, F. Spanier, Sol. Phys. 280, 551 (2012) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- T.L. Garrard, E.C. Stone, R.E. Vogt, in Proc. Symposium on High Energy Phenomena on the Sun, NASA SP-342, ed. by R. Ramaty, R.G. Stone (1973), p. 341 Google Scholar
- G. Gloeckler, J. Geiss, Space Sci. Rev. 130, 139 (2007) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- N. Gopalswamy, A. Lara, M.L. Kaiser, M.L. Bougeret, J. Geophys. Res. 106, 25261 (2001) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- N. Gopalswamy, S. Yashiro, G. Michalek, M.L. Kaiser, R.A. Howard, D.V. Reames, R. Leske, T. von Rosenvinge, Astrophys. J. Lett. 572, L103 (2002) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- N. Gopalswamy, S. Yashiro, S. Krucker, G. Stenborg, R.A. Howard, J. Geophys. Res. 109, A12105 (2004) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- N. Gopalswamy, H. Xie, S. Yashiro, I. Usoskin, Proc. 29th Int. Cosmic Ray Conf. (Pune) 1, 169 (2005) Google Scholar
- N. Gopalswamy, H. Xie, S. Yashiro, S. Akiyama, P. Mälekä, I.G. Usoskin, Space Sci. Rev. (2012). doi: 10.1007/s11214-012-9890-4 Google Scholar
- J.T. Gosling, J. Geophys. Res. 98, 18937 (1993) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- J.T. Gosling, E. Hildner, R.M. MacQueen, R.H. Munro, A.I. Poland, C.L. Ross, J. Geophys. Res. 79, 4581 (1974) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- J.T. Gosling, J.R. Asbridge, S.J. Bame, W.C. Feldman, R.D. Zwickl, G. Paschmann, N. Sckopke, R.J. Hynds, J. Geophys. Res. 86, 547 (1981) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- J.T. Gosling, D.N. Baker, S.J. Bame, W.C. Feldman, R.D. Zwickl, J. Geophys. Res. 92, 8519 (1987) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- J. Heyvaerts, E. Priest, D.M. Rust, Sol. Phys. 53, 255 (1977) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- K.C. Hsieh, J.A. Simpson, Astrophys. J. Lett. 162, L191 (1970) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- H.S. Hudson, Eos Trans. AGU 76(41), 405 (1995) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- H. Hudson, J. Ryan, Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 33, 239 (1995) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- G.J. Hurford, R.A. Mewaldt, E.C. Stone, R.E. Vogt, Astrophys. J. Lett. 201, L95 (1975) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- J.R. Jokipii, E.N. Parker, Astrophys. J. 155, 777 (1969) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- F.C. Jones, D.E. Ellison, Space Sci. Rev. 58, 259 (1991) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- S.W. Kahler, Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 30, 113 (1992) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- S.W. Kahler, Astrophys. J. 428, 837 (1994) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- S.W. Kahler, J. Geophys. Res. 106, 20947 (2001) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- S.W. Kahler, Space Sci. Rev. 129, 359 (2007) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- S.W. Kahler, E. Hildner, M.A.I. van Hollebeke, Sol. Phys. 57, 429 (1978) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- S.W. Kahler, N.R. Sheeley, R.A. Howard Jr., M.J. Koomen, D.J. Michels, R.E. McGuire, T.T. von Rosenvinge, D.V. Reames, J. Geophys. Res. 89, 9683 (1984) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- S.W. Kahler, E.W. Cliver, H.V. Cane, R.E. McGuire, R.G. Stone, N.R. Sheeley Jr., Astrophys. J. 302, 504 (1986) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- S.W. Kahler, R.P. Lin, D.V. Reames, R.G. Stone, M. Liggett, Sol. Phys. 107, 385 (1987) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- S.W. Kahler, D.V. Reames, N.R. Sheeley Jr., Astrophys. J. 562, 558 (2001) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- S.W. Kahler, A.J. Tylka, D.V. Reames, Astrophys. J. 701, 561 (2009) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- S.W. Kahler, D.K. Haggerty, I.D. Richardson, Astrophys. J. 736, 106 (2011a) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- S.W. Kahler, S. Krucker, A. Szabo, J. Geophys. Res. 116, A01104 (2011b) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- S.W. Kahler, E.W. Cliver, A.J. Tylka, W.F. Dietrich, Space Sci. Rev. (2011c). doi: 10.1007/s11214-011-9768-x Google Scholar
- C.F. Kennel, F.V. Coroniti, F.L. Scarf, W.A. Livesey, C.T. Russel, E.J. Smith, K.-P. Wenzel, M. Scholer, J. Geophys. Res. 91(11), 917 (1986) Google Scholar
- K. Knizhnik, M. Swizdak, J.F. Drake, Astrophys. J. Lett. 743, L35 (2011) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- W. Krittinatham, D. Ruffolo, Astrophys. J. 704, 831 (2009) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- M. Kundu, Solar Radio Astronomy (Wiley, New York, 1965) Google Scholar
- X. Landi, U. Feldman, G. Doschek, Astrophys. J. 659, 743 (2007) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- D. Lario, in Proc. 12 th Solar Wind Conf. AIP Conf. Proc., vol. 1216 (2010), p. 625 Google Scholar
- D. Lario, R.B. Decker, Geophys. Res. Lett. 29, 101393 (2002) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- D. Lario, A. Aran, R.B. Decker, Space Weather 6, S12001 (2008) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- D. Lario, A. Aran, R.B. Decker, Sol. Phys. 260, 407 (2009) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- M.A. Lee, J. Geophys. Res. 88, 6109 (1983) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- M.A. Lee, in Coronal Mass Ejections, ed. by N. Crooker, J.A. Jocelyn, J. Feynman. Geophys. Monograph, vol. 99 (AGU, Washington, 1997), p. 227 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- M.A. Lee, Astrophys. J. Suppl. 158, 38 (2005) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- R.A. Leske, J.R. Cummings, R.A. Mewaldt, E.C. Stone, T.T. von Rosenvinge, Astrophys. J. Lett. 452, L149 (1995) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- R.A. Leske, R.A. Mewaldt, C.M.S. Cohen, A.C. Cummings, E.C. Stone, M.E. Wiedenbeck, T.T. von Rosenvinge, Space Sci. Rev. 130, 195 (2007) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- G. Li, R. Moore, R.A. Mewaldt, L. Zhao, A.W. Labrador, Space Sci. Rev. 171, 141 (2012) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- R.P. Lin, Sol. Phys. 12, 266 (1970a) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- R.P. Lin, Sol. Phys. 15, 453 (1970b) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- R.P. Lin, Space Sci. Rev. 16, 189 (1974) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- S. Liu, V. Petrosian, G.M. Mason, Astrophys. J. Lett. 613, L81 (2004) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- S. Liu, V. Petrosian, G.M. Mason, Astrophys. J. 636, 462 (2006) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Y. Liu, J.G. Luhmann, S.D. Bale, R.P. Lin, Astrophys. J. 691, L151 (2009) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- K. Lodders, H. Palme, H.P. Gail, Abundances of the Elements in the Solar System, in Landolt-Börnstein, ed. by J.E. Trümper. New Series, vol. VI/4B (Springer, Berlin, 2009), pp. 560–630. Chap. 4.4 Google Scholar
- J.L. Lovell, M.L. Duldig, J.E. Humble, J. Geophys. Res. 103, 23,733 (1998) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- A. Luhn, B. Klecker, D. Hovestadt, E. Möbius, Astrophys. J. 317, 951 (1987) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- N. Mandzhavidze, R. Ramaty, B. Kozlovsky, Astrophys. J. 518, 918 (1999) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- G. Mann, H. Aurass, A. Klassen, C. Estel, B.J. Thompson, in Plasma Dynamics and Diagnostics in the Solar Transition Region and Corona, ESA SP-446, ed. by J.-C. Vial, B. Kaldeich-Schurmann (ESA, Noordwijk, 1999), p. 477 Google Scholar
- G. Mann, A. Klassen, H. Aurass, H.T. Classen, Astron. Astrophys. 400, 329 (2003) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- G.M. Mason, G. Gloeckler, D. Hovestadt, Astrophys. J. 280, 902 (1984) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- G.M. Mason, D.V. Reames, B. Klecker, D. Hovestadt, T.T. von Rosenvinge, Astrophys. J. 303, 849 (1986) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- G.M. Mason, C.K. Ng, B. Klecker, G. Green, Astrophys. J. 339, 529 (1989) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- G.M. Mason, J.E. Mazur, M.D. Looper, R.A. Mewaldt, Astrophys. J. 452, 901 (1995) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- G.M. Mason, J.E. Mazur, J.R. Dwyer, Astrophys. J. Lett. 525, L133 (1999) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- G.M. Mason et al., Astrophys. J. 574, 1039 (2002) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- G.M. Mason, J.E. Mazur, J.R. Dwyer, J.R. Jokippi, R.E. Gold, S.M. Krimigis, Astrophys. J. 606, 555 (2004) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- J.E. Mazur, G.M. Mason, J.R. Dwyer, J. Giacalone, J.R. Jokipii, E.C. Stone, Astrophys. J. 532, L79 (2000) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- K.G. McCracken, G.A.M. Dreschoff, E.J. Zeller, D.F. Smart, M.A. Shea, J. Geophys. Res. 106, 21585 (2001a) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- K.G. McCracken, G.A.M. Dreschoff, D.F. Smart, M.A. Shea, J. Geophys. Res. 106, 21599 (2001b) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- R.B. McKibben, J. Geophys. Res. 77, 3957 (1972) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- D.B. Melrose, Plasma Astrophysics, vol. 1 (Gordon and Breach, New York, 1980) Google Scholar
- D.B. Melrose, M.H. Pope, Proc. Astron. Soc. Aust. 10, 222 (1993) ADSGoogle Scholar
- R.A. Mewaldt, R.A. Leske, E.C. Stone, A.F. Barghouty, A.W. Labrador, C.M.S. Cohen, A.C. Cummings, A.J. Davis, T.T. von Rosenvinge, M.E. Wiedenbeck, Astrophys. J. Lett. 693, L11 (2009) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- R.A. Mewaldt, M.D. Looper, C.M.S. Cohen, D.K. Haggerty, A.W. Labrador, R.A. Leske, G.M. Mason, J.E. Mazur, T.T. von Rosenvinge, Space Sci. Rev. (2012). doi: 10.1007/s11214-012-9884-2 Google Scholar
- J.P. Meyer, Astrophys. J. Suppl. 57, 151 (1985) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- J.A. Miller, Eos Trans. AGU 76(41), 401 (1995) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- J.A. Miller, Space Sci. Rev. 86, 79 (1998) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- R. Mueller-Mellin, K. Roehrs, G. Wibberenz, in The sun and the heliosphere in three dimensions. Proc. 19th ESLAB Symp., Les Diablerets, Switzerland (D. Reidel Publ., Dordrecht, 1986), p. 349 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- R.J. Murphy, R. Ramaty, B. Kozlovsky, D.V. Reames, Astrophys. J. 371, 793 (1991) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- C.K. Ng, D.V. Reames, Astrophys. J. 424, 1032 (1994) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- C.K. Ng, D.V. Reames, Astrophys. J. Lett. 686, L123 (2008) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- C.K. Ng, D.V. Reames, A.J. Tylka, Astrophys. J. 591, 461 (2003) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- C.K. Ng, D.V. Reames, A.J. Tylka, in Physics of the Heliosphere: A 10 Year Retrospective. AIP Conf. Proc., vol. 1436 (2012), p. 212. doi: 10.1063/1.4723610 Google Scholar
- N.V. Nitta, D.V. Reames, M.L. DeRosa, S. Yashiro, N. Gopalswamy, Astrophys. J. 650, 438 (2006) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- R. Pallavicini, S. Serio, G.S. Vaiana, Astrophys. J. 216, 108 (1977) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- I.D. Palmer, Rev. Geophys. Space Phys. 20, 335 (1982) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- M.A. Popecki, E. Möbius, B. Klecker, A.B. Galvin, L.M. Kistler, A.T. Bogdanov, Adv. Space Res. 30(1), 33 (2002) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- A. Posner, S. Geutersloh, B. Heber, O. Rother, Space Weather 7, 5001 (2009) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- R. Ramaty, R.J. Murphy, Space Sci. Rev. 45, 213 (1987) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- R. Ramaty et al., in Solar Flares, ed. by P.A. Sturrock (Colorado Associated Univ. Press, Boulder, 1980), p. 117 Google Scholar
- R. Ramaty, N. Mandzhavidze, B. Kozlovsky, R.J. Murphy, Astrophys. J. Lett. 455, L193 (1995) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- D.V. Reames, Astrophys. J. Lett. 330, L71 (1988) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- D.V. Reames, Astrophys. J. Lett. 358, L63 (1990a) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- D.V. Reames, Astrophys. J. Suppl. 73, 235 (1990b) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- D.V. Reames, Adv. Space Res. 15(7), 41 (1995a) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- D.V. Reames, Eos Trans. AGU 76(41), 401 (1995b) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- D.V. Reames, Space Sci. Rev. 85, 327 (1998) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- D.V. Reames, Space Sci. Rev. 90, 413 (1999) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- D.V. Reames, Astrophys. J. Lett. 540, L111 (2000) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- D.V. Reames, Astrophys. J. Lett. 571, L63 (2002) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- D.V. Reames, Astrophys. J. 693, 812 (2009a) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- D.V. Reames, Astrophys. J. 706, 844 (2009b) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- D.V. Reames, Sol. Phys. 265, 187 (2010) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- D.V. Reames, Astrophys. J. 757, 93 (2012) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- D.V. Reames, N. Lal, Astrophys. J. 723, 550 (2010) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- D.V. Reames, C.K. Ng, Astrophys. J. 504, 1002 (1998) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- D.V. Reames, C.K. Ng, Astrophys. J. Lett. 577, L59 (2002) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- D.V. Reames, C.K. Ng, Astrophys. J. 610, 510 (2004) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- D.V. Reames, C.K. Ng, Astrophys. J. 723, 1286 (2010) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- D.V. Reames, R.G. Stone, Astrophys. J. 308, 902 (1986) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- D.V. Reames, T.T. von Rosenvinge, R.P. Lin, Astrophys. J. 292, 716 (1985) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- D.V. Reames, B.R. Dennis, R.G. Stone, R.P. Lin, Astrophys. J. 327, 998 (1988) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- D.V. Reames, J.P. Meyer, T.T. von Rosenvinge, Astrophys. J. Suppl. 90, 649 (1994) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- D.V. Reames, L.M. Barbier, C.K. Ng, Astrophys. J. 466, 473 (1996) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- D.V. Reames, L.M. Barbier, T.T. von Rosenvinge, G.M. Mason, J.E. Mazur, J.R. Dwyer, Astrophys. J. 483, 515 (1997a) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- D.V. Reames, S.W. Kahler, C.K. Ng, Astrophys. J. 491, 414 (1997b) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- D.V. Reames, C.K. Ng, A.J. Tylka, Astrophys. J. Lett. 531, L83 (2000) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- D.V. Reames, A.J. Tylka, C.K. Ng, in Space Tech. and Appl. Intern. Forum, ed. by M.S. El-Genk. AIP Conf. Proc., vol. 552 (2001), p. 1185 Google Scholar
- D.V. Reames, S.W. Kahler, A.J. Tylka, Astrophys. J. Lett. 700, L196 (2009) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- D.V. Reames, C.K. Ng, A.J. Tylka, Sol. Phys. (2012). doi: 10.1007/s11207-012-0038-1 Google Scholar
- R.C. Reedy, in Solar Drivers of Interplanetary and Terrestrial Disturbances, vol. 95, ed. by K.S. Balasubramanian, S.L. Keil, R.N. Smartt (Astron Soc. of the Pacific, San Francisco, 1996), p. 429 Google Scholar
- R.C. Reedy, in 37 th Ann. Lunar Planet. Sci. Conf., Lunar and Planetary Tech. Inst. Tech Rept, vol. 37, ed. by S. Mackwell, E. Stansbery (2006), p. 1419 Google Scholar
- R.C. Reedy, in 43 rd Ann. Lunar Planet. Sci. Conf., Lunar and Planetary Tech. Inst. Tech Rept, vol. 43 (2012), p. 1285 Google Scholar
- E.C. Roelof, R.E. Gold, G.M. Simnett, S.J. Tappin, T.P. Armstrong, L.J. Lanzerotti, Geophys. Res. Lett. 19, 1243 (1992) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- I. Roth, M. Temerin, Astrophys. J. 477, 940 (1997) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- A.P. Rouillard et al., Astrophys. J. 737, 7 (2011) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- A.P. Rouillard et al., Astrophys. J. 752, 44 (2012) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- J.M. Ryan, Space Sci. Rev. 93, 581 (2000) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- A. Sáiz, P. Evenson, D. Ruffolo, J.W. Bieber, Astrophys. J. 626, 1131 (2005) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- A. Sandroos, R. Vainio, Astrophys. J. 662, L127 (2007) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- A. Sandroos, R. Vainio, Astron. Astrophys. 507, L21 (2009) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- J.T. Schmelz, D.V. Reames, R. von Steiger, S. Basu, Astrophys. J. 755, 33 (2012) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- C.J. Schrijver et al., J. Geophys. Res. 117, A08173 (2012) CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- A.T. Serlemitsos, V.K. Balasubrahmanyan, Astrophys. J. 198, 195 (1975) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- N.R. Sheeley Jr. et al., Sol. Phys. 45, 377 (1975) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- K. Shibata et al., Publ. Astron. Soc. Jpn. 44, L173 (1992) ADSGoogle Scholar
- M. Shimojo, K. Shibata, Astrophys. J. 542, 1100 (2000) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- S. Shodhan, N.S. Crooker, S.W. Kahler, R.J. Fritzenreiter, D.E. Larson, R.P. Lepping, G.L. Siscoe, J.T. Gosling, J. Geophys. Res. 105, 27261 (2000) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- P.L. Slocum et al., Astrophys. J. 594, 592 (2003) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- T.H. Stix, Waves in Plasmas (AIP, New York, 1992) Google Scholar
- L.C. Tan, G.M. Mason, G. Gloeckler, F.M. Ipavich, J. Geophys. Res. 94, 6554 (1989) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- L.C. Tan, D.V. Reames, C.K. Ng, Astrophys. J. 678, 1471 (2008) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- L.C. Tan, D.V. Reames, C.K. Ng, O. Saloniemi, L. Wang, Astrophys. J. 701, 1753 (2009) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- L.C. Tan, D.V. Reames, C.K. Ng, X. Shao, L. Wang, Astrophys. J. 728, 133 (2011) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- L.C. Tan, O.E. Malandraki, D.V. Reames, C.K. Ng, L. Wang, G. Dorrian, Astrophys. J. 750, 146 (2012) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- L.C. Tan, O.E. Malandraki, D.V. Reames, C.K. Ng, L. Wang, I. Patsou, A. Papaioannou, Astrophys. J. (2013, submitted) Google Scholar
- M. Temerin, I. Roth, Astrophys. J. Lett. 391, L105 (1992) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- T. Terasawa, M. Oka, K. Nakata, K. Keika, M. Nosé, R.W. McEntire, Y. Saito, T. Mukai, Adv. Space Res. 37, 1408 (2006) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- G. Thejappa, R.J. MacDowall, M. Bergamo, K. Papadopoulos, Astrophys. J. Lett. 747, L1 (2012) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- R. Tousey, in Space Research XIII, ed. by M.J. Rycroft, S.K. Runcorn (Academie-Verlag, Berlin, 1973), p. 173 Google Scholar
- B.T. Tsurutani, W.D. Gonzalez, Planet. Space Sci. 35, 405 (1987) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- A.J. Tylka, J. Geophys. Res. 106, 25333 (2001) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- A.J. Tylka, M.A. Lee, Astrophys. J. 646, 1319 (2006) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- A.J. Tylka, P.R. Boberg, J.H. Adams, L.P. Beahm Jr., W.F. Dietrich, T. Kleis, Astrophys. J. 444, L109 (1995) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- A.J. Tylka, P.R. Boberg, R.E. McGuire, C.K. Ng, D.V. Reames, in AIP Conf. Proc. 528, Acceleration and Transport of Energetic Particles Observed in the Heliosphere, ed. by R.A. Mewaldt, J.R. Jokipii, M.A. Lee, E. Möbius, T.H. Zurbuchen (AIP, Melville, 2000), p. 147 Google Scholar
- A.J. Tylka, C.M.S. Cohen, W.F. Deitrich, C.G. Maclennan, R.E. McGuire, C.K. Ng, D.V. Reames, Astrophys. J. Lett. 558, L59 (2001) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- A.J. Tylka et al., in Proc. 28th Int. Cosmic Ray Conf. (2003), p. 3305 Google Scholar
- A.J. Tylka, C.M.S. Cohen, W.F. Dietrich, M.A. Lee, C.G. Maclennan, R.A. Mewaldt, C.K. Ng, D.V. Reames, Astrophys. J. 625, 474 (2005) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- A.J. Tylka, C.M.S. Cohen, W.F. Dietrich, M.A. Lee, C.G. Maclennan, R.A. Mewaldt, C.K. Ng, D.V. Reames, Astrophys. J. Suppl. 164, 536 (2006) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- A.J. Tylka, O.E. Malandraki, G. Dorrian, Y.-K. Ko, R.G. Marsden, C.K. Ng, C. Tranquille, Sol. Phys. 172 (2012). doi: 10.1007/s11207-012-0064-z
- R. Vainio, T. Laitinen, Astrophys. J. 658, 622 (2007) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- R. Vainio, T. Laitinen, J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 70, 467 (2008) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- J.A. Van Allen, S.M. Krimigis, J. Geophys. Res. 70, 5737 (1965) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- W.T. Vestrand, D.J. Forrest, Astrophys. J. Lett. 409, L69 (1993) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- W.T. Vestrand, G.H. Share, R.J. Murphy, D.J. Forrest, E. Rieger, E.L. Chupp, G. Kanbach, Astrophys. J. Suppl. 120, 409 (1999) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- A.F. Viñas, M.L. Goldstein, M.H. Acuña, J. Geophys. Res. 89, 3762 (1984) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- R. von Steiger, N.A. Schwadron, L.A. Fisk, J. Geiss, G. Gloeckler, S. Hefti, B. Wilken, R.F. Wimmer-Schweingruber, T.H. Zurbuchen, J. Geophys. Res. 105, 27217 (2000) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- B. Vršnak, J. Magdalenić, H. Aurass, G. Mann, Astron. Astrophys. 396, 673 (2002) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Y.-M. Wang, M. Pick, G.M. Mason, Astrophys. J. 639, 495 (2006) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- D.F. Webb, R.A. Howard, J. Geophys. Res. 99, 4201 (1994) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- G. Wibberenz, Proc. 16th Intern. Cosmic Ray Conf. (Kyoto) 14, 234 (1979) Google Scholar
- M.E. Wiedenbeck, G.M. Mason, C.M.S. Cohen, N.V. Nitta, R. Gomez-Herrero, D.K. Haggerty, Proc. 32nd Intern. Cosmic Ray Conf. (Beijing) 10, 206 (2011) Google Scholar
- J.P. Wild, S.F. Smerd, A.A. Weiss, Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 1, 291 (1963) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- E.W. Wolff, M. Bigler, M.A.J. Curran, J.E. Dibb, M.M. Frey, M. Legrand, J.R. McConnell, Geophys. Res. Lett. 39, L08503 (2012) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- M.A. Xapsos, C. Stauffer, T. Jordan, J.L. Barth, R.A. Mewaldt, IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 54, 1985 (2007) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- G.P. Zank, W.K.M. Rice, C.C. Wu, J. Geophys. Res. 105, 25079 (2000) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- G.P. Zank, G. Li, V. Florinski, Q. Hu, D. Lario, C.W. Smith, J. Geophys. Res. 111, A06108 (2006) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- G.P. Zank, G. Li, O. Verkhoglyadova, Space Sci. Rev. 130, 255 (2007) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- G. Zhang, L.F. Burlaga, J. Geophys. Res. 93, 2511 (1988) ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar