Space Science Reviews

, Volume 155, Issue 1–4, pp 9–27 | Cite as

Terrestrial Magnetism: Historical Perspectives and Future Prospects

“Baggage We Carry with Us”
Article

Abstract

This collection of reviews marks the state of the art of geomagnetic data collection, modelling, and interpretation at a time of unprecedented advances in all 3 facets of the subject. For the first time we have excellent satellite data with the prospect of more to come, vast improvements in laboratory techniques, and opportunities to use large scale computing to model the data. In the past, research has been conducted by the separate disciplines largely in isolation; we can hope the subject has now matured enough for progress to be made by genuine collaboration between theoreticians and experimentalists. The purpose of this chapter is to set the historical setting, and I have chosen a starting date of 1980, when vector satellite data first became available and stimulated many new advances in the subject. We can hope for a similar or better stimulus in the next decade.

Keywords

Geomagnetism Paleomagnetism Dynamo theory 

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. D.W. Allan, E.C. Bullard, The secular variation of the Earth’s magnetic field. Proc. Camb. Philos. Soc. 62, 783–809 (1966) CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  2. H. Amit, P. Olson, Helical core flow from geomagnetic secular variation. Phys. Earth Planet. Int. 147(1), 1–25 (2004) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  3. Y. Asahara, D.J. Frost, D.C. Rubie, Partitioning of FeO between magnesiowustite and liquid iron at high pressures and temperatures: Implications for the composition of the Earth’s outer core. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 257, 435–449 (2007) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  4. J. Aubert, H. Amit, G. Hulot, Detecting thermal boundary control in surface flows from numerical dynamos. Phys. Earth Planet. Int. 160, 143–156 (2007) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  5. S. Aumaître, M. Berhanu, M. Bourgoin, et al., The VKS experiment: turbulent dynamical dynamos. C. R. Phys. 9, 689–701 (2008) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  6. G.E. Backus, Kinematics of the secular variation. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. 263, 239–266 (1968) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  7. G.E. Backus, Bayesian inference in geomagnetism. Geophys. J. 92, 125–142 (1988) MATHCrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  8. G.E. Backus, Current Meters in the Core of the Earth, 91–24. Scripps Institute of Oceanography Reference Series (Univ. California at San Diego, San Diego, 1991) Google Scholar
  9. J. Bloxham, The expulsion of flux from the Earth’s core. Geophys. J. R. Astron. Soc. 87, 669–678 (1986) Google Scholar
  10. J. Bloxham, Sensitivity of the geomagnetic axial dipole to thermal core-mantle interactions. Nature 405, 63–65 (2000) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  11. J. Bloxham, Time-independent and time-dependent behaviour of high-latitude flux bundles at the core-mantle boundary. Geophys. Res. Lett. 29, 1854 (2002) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  12. J. Bloxham, A. Jackson, Simultaneous stochastic inversion for geomagnetic main field and secular variation—2. 1820–1980. J. Geophys. Res. 94, 15753–15769 (1989) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  13. J. Bloxham, A. Jackson, Fluid-flow near the surface of the Earth’s outer core. Rev. Geophys. 29, 97–120 (1991) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  14. J. Bloxham, D. Gubbins, A. Jackson, Geomagnetic secular variation. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lon. 329, 415–502 (1989) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  15. S.I. Braginsky, Structure of the F layer and reasons for convection in the Earth’s core. Dokl. Akad. Nauk. SSSR Engl. Trans. 149, 1311–1314 (1963) Google Scholar
  16. S.I. Braginsky, Short-period geomagnetic secular variation. Geophys. Astrophys. Fluid Dyn. 30, 1–78 (1984) MATHCrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  17. S.I. Braginsky, V.P. Meytlis, Local turbulence in the Earth’s core. Geophys. Astrophys. Fluid Dyn. 55, 71–87 (1990) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  18. S.I. Braginsky, P.H. Roberts, A model-z geodynamo. Geophys. Astrophys. Fluid Dyn. 38, 327–349 (1987) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  19. B.A. Buffett, H. Matsui, Core turbulence, in Encyclopedia of Geomagnetism and Paleomagnetism, ed. by D. Gubbins, E. Herrero-Bervera (Springer, Dordrecht, 2007), pp. 101–104 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  20. B.A. Buffett, C.T. Seagle, Stratification at the top of the core due to chemical interactions with the mantle. J. Geophys. Res. 115(4), B04407 (2010). doi: 10.1029/2009JB006751 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  21. F.H. Busse, A model of the geodynamo. Geophys. J. R. Astron. Soc. 42, 437–459 (1975) MATHGoogle Scholar
  22. J.C. Cain, Z.G. Wang, D.R. Schmitz, J. Meyer, The geomagnetic spectrum for 1980 and core crustal separation. Geophys. J. Int. 97, 443–447 (1989) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  23. J. Carlut, V. Courtillot, How complex is the time-averaged geomagnetic field over the past 5 Myr? Geophys. J. Int. 134, 527–544 (1998) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  24. S. Chandrasekhar, Hydrodynamic and Hydromagnetic Stability (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1961) MATHGoogle Scholar
  25. U. Christensen, P. Olson, G.A. Glatzmaier, A dynamo model interpretation of geomagnetic field structures. Geophys. Res. Lett. 25, 1565–1568 (1998) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  26. U.R. Christensen, P. Olson, Secular variation in numerical geodynamo models with lateral variations of boundary heat flow. Phys. Earth Planet. Int. 138, 39–54 (2003) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  27. R.D. Cottrell, J.A. Tarduno, J. Roberts, The Kiaman reversed polarity superchron at Kiama: Toward a field strength estimate based on single silicate crystals. Phys. Earth Planet. Int. 169(1–4), 49–58 (2008). doi: 10.1016/j.pepi.2008.07.041 CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  28. C.J. Davies, D. Gubbins, A.P. Willis, P.K. Jimack, Time-averaged paleomagnetic field and secular variation: Predictions from dynamo solutions based on lower mantle seismic tomography. Phys. Earth Planet. Int. 169, 194–203 (2008) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  29. C.J. Davies, D. Gubbins, P.K. Jimack, Scalability of pseudospectral methods for geodynamo simulations. Concurr. Comput. Pract. Exp. (2010). doi: 10.1002/cpe.1593
  30. D.W. Eaton, J.M. Kendall, Improving seismic resolution of outermost core structure by multichannel analysis and deconvolution of broadband SmKS phases. Phys. Earth Planet. Int. 155, 104–109 (2006) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  31. A. Gailitis, O. Lielausis, E. Platacis, S. Dement’ev, A. Cifersons, Magnetic field saturation in the Riga dynamo experiment. Phys. Rev. Lett. 86, 3024–3027 (2001) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  32. G.A. Glatzmaier, P.H. Roberts, A three-dimensional convective dynamo solution with rotating and finitely conducting inner core and mantle. Phys. Earth Planet. Int. 91, 63–75 (1995) CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  33. G.A. Glatzmaier, R.S. Coe, L. Hongre, P.H. Roberts, The role of the Earth’s mantle in controlling the frequency of geomagnetic reversals. Nature 401, 885–890 (1999) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  34. E. Grote, F.H. Busse, A. Tilgner, Effects of hyperdiffusivities on dynamo simulations. Geophys. Res. Lett. 27, 2001–2004 (2000) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  35. D. Gubbins, Geomagnetic field analysis I: Stochastic inversion. Geophys. J. R. Astron. Soc. 73, 641–652 (1983) Google Scholar
  36. D. Gubbins, A formalism for the inversion of geomagnetic data for core motions with diffusion. Phys. Earth Planet. Int. 98, 193–206 (1996) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  37. D. Gubbins, P. Kelly, Persistent patterns in the geomagnetic field during the last 2.5 Myr. Nature 365, 829–832 (1993) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  38. D. Gubbins, P. Kelly, A difficulty with using the frozen flux hypothesis to find steady core motions. Geophys. Res. Lett. 23, 1825–1828 (1996) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  39. D. Gubbins, J. Love, Geomagnetic reversal transition fields: a test of 4-fold symmetry. Geophys. Res. Lett. 25, 1079–1082 (1998) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  40. D. Gubbins, G. Masters, F. Nimmo, A thermochemical boundary layer at the base of Earth’s outer core and independent estimate of core heat flux. Geophys. J. Int. 174, 1007–1018 (2008) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  41. D. Gubbins, B. Sreenivasan, S. Rost, J. Mound, Is the inner core melting? Phys. Earth Planet. Inter. (2010, submitted) Google Scholar
  42. G. Helffrich, S. Kaneshima, Seismological constraints on core composition from Fe-O-S liquid immiscibility. Science 306, 2239–2242 (2004) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  43. K. Hemant, S. Maus, Geological modeling of the new CHAMP magnetic anomaly maps using a geographical information system technique. J. Geophys. Res. 110, B12103 (2005). doi: 10.1029/2005003837 CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  44. R. Hide, K. Stewartson, Hydromagnetic oscillations of the Earth’s core. Rev. Geophys. 10, 579–598 (1972) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  45. K. Hutcheson, D. Gubbins, A model of the geomagnetic field for the 17th century. J. Geophys. Res. 95, 10769–10781 (1990) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  46. A. Jackson, J. Bloxham, D. Gubbins, Time-dependent flow at the core surface and conservation of angular momentum in the coupled core-mantle system, in Dynamics of Earth’s Deep Interior and Earth Rotation, ed. by J.L. Le Mouël, D.E. Smylie, J. Herring. AGU Geophys. Monogr., vol. 72 (IUGG, Paris, 1993), pp. 97–107 Google Scholar
  47. A. Jackson, A.R.T. Jonkers, M.R. Walker, Four centuries of geomagnetic secular variation from historical records. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. 358, 957–990 (2000) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  48. C. Johnson, C. Constable, The time-averaged geomagnetic field as recorded by lava flows over the past 5 Myr. Geophys. J. Int. 122, 489–519 (1995) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  49. M. Korte, C. Constable, Continuous global geomagnetic field models for the past 3000 years. Phys. Earth Planet. Int. 140, 73–89 (2003) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  50. M. Korte, C.G. Constable, Continuous geomagnetic field models for the past 7 millennia: 2. cals7k. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 6 (2005) Google Scholar
  51. M. Korte, F. Donadini, C.G. Constable, Geomagnetic field for 0–3 ka: 2. A new series of time-varying global models. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 10(6), 24 (2009). doi: 10.1029/2008GC002297 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  52. W. Kuang, J. Bloxham, An Earth-like numerical dynamo model. Nature 389, 371–374 (1997) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  53. C. Kutzner, U. Christensen, From stable dipolar towards reversing numerical dynamos. Phys. Earth Planet. Int. 131, 29–45 (2002) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  54. C. Kutzner, U.R. Christensen, Simulated geomagnetic reversals and preferred virtual geomagnetic pole paths. Geophys. J. Int. 157, 1105–1118 (2004) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  55. S. Labrosse, J.P. Poirier, J.L.L. Mouël, The age of the inner core. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 190, 111–123 (2001) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  56. C. Laj, J.E.T. Channel, Geomagnetic excursions, in Treatise on Geophysics, vol. 5.10 (2007), pp. 373–416 Google Scholar
  57. R.A. Langel, Special issue—a perspective on MAGSAT results—introduction. J. Geophys. Res. 90, 2441–2444 (1985) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  58. C.G. Langereis, M.J. Dekkers, G.J. de Lange, M. Paterne, P.J.M. van Santvoort, Magnetostratigraphy and astronomical calibration of the last 1.1 Myr from an eastern Mediterranean piston core and dating of short events in the Brunhes. Geophys. J. Int. 129, 75–94 (1997) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  59. R.L. Larson, P. Olson, Mantle plumes control magnetic reversal frequency. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 107, 437–447 (1991) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  60. J.L. LeMouël, C. Gire, T. Madden, Motions of the core surface in the geostrophic approximation. Phys. Earth Planet. Int. 39, 270–287 (1985) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  61. F.J. Lowes, Dynamo, Lowes-Wilkinson, in Encyclopedia of Geomagnetism and Paleomagnetism, ed. by D. Gubbins, E. Herrero-Bervera (Springer, Dordrecht, 2007), pp. 173–174 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  62. S. Lund, J.S. Stoner, J.E.T. Channell, G. Acton, A summary of Brunhes paleomagnetic field variability recorded in ocean drilling program cores. Phys. Earth Planet. Int. 156, 194–204 (2006) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  63. R.T. Merrill, M.W. McElhinny, P.L. McFadden, The Magnetic Field of the Earth: Paleomagnetism, the Core, and the Deep Mantle (Academic Press, San Diego, 1996), p. 527 Google Scholar
  64. J. Meyer, J.H. Hufen, M. Siebert, A. Hahn, Investigations of the internal geomagnetic field by means of a global model of the earth’s crust. J. Geophys. Z. Geophys. 52, 71–84 (1983) Google Scholar
  65. F. Nimmo, G. Price, J. Brodholt, D. Gubbins, The influence of potassium on core and geodynamo evolution. Geophys. J. Int. 156, 1407–1414 (2004) CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  66. P. Olson, U.R. Christensen, The time-averaged magnetic field in numerical dynamos with non-uniform boundary heat flow. Geophys. J. Int. 151, 809–823 (2002) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  67. S. Rau, U. Christensen, A. Jackson, J. Wicht, Core flow inversion tested with numerical dynamo models. Geophys. J. Int. 141, 485–497 (2000) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  68. P.H. Roberts, Alfvén’s theorem and the frozen flux approximation, in Encyclopedia of Geomagnetism and Paleomagnetism, ed. by D. Gubbins, E. Herrero-Bervera (Springer, Dordrecht, 2007), pp. 7–11 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  69. P.H. Roberts, S. Scott, On the analysis of the secular variation. A hydromagnetic constraint: I. Theory. J. Geomagn. Geoelectr. 17, 137–151 (1965) Google Scholar
  70. V.P. Rodionov, V.E. Pavlov, Y. Gallet, Magnetic polarity structure of the stratotype section of the mid-Ordovician Kirenskii-Kudrinskii and Chertovskii horizons (up the Lena river, above the town of Kirensk) in relation to the Ordovician geomagnetic superchron. Izv. Phys. Solid Earth 37, 498–502 (2001) Google Scholar
  71. D. Schmitt, T. Alboussiere, D. Brito, N. Gagniere, D. Jault, H.C. Nataf, Rotating spherical couette flow in a dipolar magnetic field: experimental study of magneto-inertial waves. J. Fluid Mech. 604, 175–197 (2008) MATHCrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  72. L. Shure, R.L. Parker, G.E. Backus, Harmonic splines for geomagnetic modelling. Phys. Earth Planet. Inter. 28, 215–229 (1982) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  73. A. Souriau, G. Poupinet, The velocity profile at the base of the liquid core from PKP(BC+Cdiff) data—an argument in favor of radial inhomogeneity. Geophys. Res. Lett. 18, 2023–2026 (1991) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  74. B. Sreenivasan, D. Gubbins, Dynamos with weakly convecting outer layers: implications for core-boundary locking. Geophys. Astrophys. Fluid Dyn. 102, 395–407 (2008) CrossRefMathSciNetGoogle Scholar
  75. R. Stieglitz, U. Mueller, Experimental demonstration of a homogeneous two-scale dynamo. Phys. Fluids 13, 561 (2001). doi: 01.1063/11331315 CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  76. J.B. Taylor, The magneto-hydrodynamics of a rotating fluid and the Earth’s dynamo problem. Proc. R. Soc. 274, 274–283 (1963) MATHCrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  77. C.V. Voorhies, G.E. Backus, Steady flows at the top of the core from geomagnetic field models: The steady motions theorem. Geophys. Astrophys. Fluid Dyn. 32, 163–173 (1985) MATHCrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  78. K.A. Whaler, Does the whole of the Earth’s core convect? Nature 287, 528–530 (1980) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  79. S. Zatman, J. Bloxham, Torsional oscillations and the magnetic field within the Earth’s core. Nature 388, 760–763 (1997) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  80. K. Zhang, D. Gubbins, Is the geodynamo process intrinsically unstable? Geophys. J. Int. 140, 1–4 (2000) CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  81. K. Zhang, C.A. Jones, On small Roberts number magnetoconvection in rapidly rotating systems. Proc. R. Soc. 452, 981–995 (1996) MATHCrossRefADSGoogle Scholar
  82. K. Zhang, C.A. Jones, The effect of hyperviscosity on geodynamo models. Geophys. Res. Lett. 24, 2869–2872 (1997) CrossRefADSGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010

Authors and Affiliations

  1. 1.School of Earth and EnvironmentUniversity of LeedsLeedsUK

Personalised recommendations