Advertisement

International Review of Education

, Volume 64, Issue 5, pp 543–562 | Cite as

Lifelong learning – lifelong returns? A new theoretical framework for the analysis of civic returns on adult learning

  • Ina Elisabeth Rüber
  • Sai-Lila Rees
  • Bernhard Schmidt-Hertha
Original Paper
First Online:

Abstract

Education is associated with a wide range of positive outcomes such as higher wages and employability, but also with increased well-being or volunteering. While previous research focused mainly on returns on formal education in schools or universities, there has been a notable shift in recent years towards the analysis of returns on adult learning. While research has established theory-driven empirical evidence concerning labour market-related outcomes, it fails to identify and coherently explain non-monetary outcomes. The authors of this article review 13 empirical studies on different forms of civic participation as a return on engagement in adult learning. Individuals’ civic participation is one precondition to social cohesion and functioning citizenship at a societal level and thus a factor of high political and societal relevance. All the studies reviewed in this article suggest a positive association between adult learning and civic engagement. To what extent this association is causal, however, remains an open question. The authors argue that any efforts to identify such causality must begin with a number of theoretical assumptions about the mechanisms through which learning may influence civic participation. By linking the theoretical ideas of the studies reviewed with the literature on volunteering, the authors suggest a new theoretical framework, which may guide further research.

Keywords

lifelong learning adult education educational returns civic participation volunteering 

Résumé

Apprentissage tout au long de la vie – bénéfices pour la vie ? Nouveau cadre théorique pour l’analyse des dividendes civiques de l’apprentissage des adultes – L’éducation et la formation sont généralement associées à un grand nombre de conséquences positives telles que salaires plus élevés et meilleure employabilité, mais aussi à une augmentation du bien-être ou du bénévolat. Alors que les études précédentes se penchent essentiellement sur les bienfaits de l’enseignement formel dans les écoles et universités, il s’est opéré ces dernières années une nette évolution vers l’analyse des bénéfices de l’apprentissage à l’âge adulte. Si de nombreuses études fournissent des données empiriques à fondement théorique sur les incidences liées au marché du travail, elles manquent néanmoins d’identifier et d’expliquer de manière cohérente les conséquences non monétaires. Les auteurs de cet article examinent 13 études empiriques sur les différentes formes de participation citoyenne résultant de la formation des adultes. L’engagement civique au niveau individuel est un prérequis à la cohésion sociale et à une citoyenneté efficace au niveau sociétal, et constitue donc un facteur de forte pertinence politique et sociale. Toutes les études examinées indiquent une association positive entre apprentissage à l’âge adulte et participation citoyenne. L’ampleur du lien causal demeure cependant une question en suspens. Les auteurs avancent que toute tentative d’établir cette causalité doit commencer par une série d’hypothèses théoriques sur les mécanismes par lesquels l’apprentissage peut influencer l’engagement civique. En reliant les concepts théoriques des études examinées à la documentation sur le bénévolat, les auteurs proposent un nouveau cadre théorique susceptible de guider la recherche ultérieure.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

Notes

Acknowledgements

The research presented in this article was conducted as part of an ongoing project entitled “Nicht-monetäre Erträge der Weiterbildung: zivilgesellschaftliche Partizipation” [Non-monetary returns on further education: participation in civic society], which is funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research.

References

  1. Arlanch, S., Girardi, J., & Hamedinger, A. (2011). Die Rolle von politischen Kulturen in der Öffentlichkeitsbeteiligung [The role of political cultures in public participation]. In M. Handler & R. Trattnigg (Eds.), Zukunft der Öffentlichkeitsbeteiligung. Chancen. Grenzen. Herausforderungen [The future of public participation: Opportunities, limits, challenges] (pp. 65–72). Vienna: Bundesministerium für Land- und Forstwirtschaft, Umwelt und Wasserwirtschaft (Lebensministerium) & Österreichische Gesellschaft für Umwelt und Technik (ÖGUT). Retrieved 20 June 2018 from http://www.partizipation.at/fileadmin/media_data/Downloads/Zukunftsdiskurse-Studien/zukunft-der-oeffentlichkeitsbeteiligung.pdf.
  2. Balatti, J., & Falk, I. (2002). Socioeconomic contributions of adult learning to community: A Social capital perspective. Adult Education Quarterly, 52(4), 281–298.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  3. Balatti, J., Black, S., & Falk, I. (2006). Reframing adult literacy and numeracy course outcomes: A social perspective. Adelaide, South Australia: National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER). Retrieved 20 June 2018 from https://www.ncver.edu.au/publications/publications/all-publications/reframing-adult-literacy-and-numeracy-course-outcomes-a-social-capital-perspective.
  4. Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191–215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  5. Becker, G. S. (1962). Investment in human capital: A theoretical analysis. Journal of Political Economy, 70(5, Part 2), 9–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  6. Bekkers, R. (2005). Participation in voluntary associations: Relations with resources, personality, and political values. Political Psychology, 26(3), 439–454.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  7. Buchholz, S., Unfried, J., & Blossfeld, H.-P. (2014). Reinforcing social inequalities? Adult learning and returns to adult learning in Germany. In H.-P. Blossfeld, E. Kilpi-Jakonen, D. Vono de Vilhena, & S. Buchholz (Eds.), Adult learning in modern societies: An international comparison from a life-course perspective (pp. 242–263). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing.Google Scholar
  8. Bynner, J., Schuller, T., & Feinstein, L. (2003). Wider benefits of education: Skills, higher education and civic engagement. Zeitschrift für Pädagogik, 49(3), 341–361.Google Scholar
  9. Campbell, D. E. (2006). What is education’s impact on civic and social engagement? In R. Desjardins, & T. Schuller (Eds.), Measuring the effects of education on health and civic engagement: Proceedings of the Copenhagen Symposium (pp. 25–126). Paris: OECD. Retrieved 20 June 2018 from http://www.oecd.org/edu/innovation-education/measuringtheeffectsofeducationonhealthandcivicengagement.htm.
  10. Cedefop (European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training). (2014). Terminology of European education and training policy: A selection of 130 key terms (2nd ed.). Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.Google Scholar
  11. Chan, J., To, H. P., & Chan, E. (2006). Reconsidering social cohesion: Developing a definition and analytical framework for empirical research. Social Indicators Research, 75(2), 273–302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  12. Cnaan, R. A., & Park, S. (2016). The multifaceted nature of civic participation: A literature review. Voluntaristics Review, 1(1), 1–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  13. Cocquyt, C., Diep, N. A., Zhu, C., De Greef, M., & Vanwing, T. (2017). Examining social inclusion and social capital among adult learners in blended and online learning environments. European Journal for Research on the Education and Learning of Adults, 8(1), 77–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  14. Côté, J. E. (1997). An empirical test of the identity capital model. Journal of Adolescence, 20(5), 577–597.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  15. Côté, J. E. (2005). Identity capital, social capital and the wider benefits of learning: Generating resources facilitative of social cohesion. London Review of Education, 3(3), 221–237.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  16. De Donder, L., Brosens, D., De Witte, N., Buffel, T., Dury, S., Smetcoren, A. S., et al. (2014). Lifelong learning in old age: Results from the Belgian ageing studies. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 116, 513–517.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  17. De Greef, M., Verté, D., & Segers, M. (2015). Differential outcomes of adult education on adult learners’ increase in social inclusion. Studies in Continuing Education, 37(1), 62–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  18. Desjardins, R. (2017). Political economy of adult learning systems: Comparative study of strategies, policies and constraints. London: Bloomsbury Publishing.Google Scholar
  19. Dewson, S., Eccles, J., Tackey, N. D., & Jackson, A. (2000). Measuring soft outcomes and distance travelled: A review of current practice. Research brief no. 219. London: Department for Education and Employment (DfEE). Retrieved 20 June 2018 from http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20130320181751, https://www.education.gov.uk/publications/eOrderingDownload/RB219.pdf.
  20. Diouf, W., Sheckley, B. G., & Kehrhahn, M. (2000). Adult learning in a non-Western context: The influence of culture in a Senegalese farming village. Adult Education Quarterly, 51(1), 32–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  21. Dolan, P., Peasgood, T., & White, M. (2008). Do we really know what makes us happy? A review of the economic literature on the factors associated with subjective well-being. Journal of Economic Psychology, 29(1), 94–122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  22. EC (European Commission). (2000). Arbeitsdokument der Kommissionsdienststellen. Memorandum über das Lebenslange Lernen [Commission staff working document. Memorandum on Lifelong Learning]. Brussels: European Commission. Retrieved 20 June 2018 from https://www.hrk.de/uploads/tx_szconvention/memode.pdf.
  23. Einolf, C., & Chambré, S. M. (2011). Who volunteers? Constructing a hybrid theory. International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing, 16(4), 298–310.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  24. Eisermann, M., Janik, F., & Kruppe, T. (2014). Weiterbildungsbeteiligung – Ursachen unterschiedlicher Teilnahmequoten in verschiedenen Datenquellen [Participation in continuing education – causes of differing participation rates in different data sources]. Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft, 17(3), 473–495.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  25. Emler, N., & Frazer, E. (1999). Politics: The education effect. Oxford Review of Education, 25(1/2), 251–273.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  26. Eurostat. (2016). Classification of learning activities (CLA). Manual. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.Google Scholar
  27. Feinstein, L., Hammond, C., Woods, L., Preston, J., & Bynner, J. (2003). The contribution of adult learning to health and social capital. Wider Benefits of Learning Research Report, No. 8. London: Centre for Research on the Wider Benefits of Learning, Institute of Education. Retrieved 20 June 2018 from http://eprints.ioe.ac.uk/14854/1/WBLResRep8.pdf.
  28. Feinstein, L., & Hammond, C. (2004). The contribution of adult learning to health and social capital. Oxford Review of Education, 30(2), 199–221.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  29. Field, J. (2011). Researching the benefits of learning: The persuasive power of longitudinal studies. London Review of Education, 9(3), 283–292.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  30. Freire, P. (1979). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Herder and Herder.Google Scholar
  31. Fujiwara, D. (2012). Valuing the impact of adult learning: An analysis of the effect of adult learning on different domains in life. National Institute of Adult Continuing Education (NIACE): Leicester.Google Scholar
  32. Gnahs, D. (2008). “Weiterbildung” und “adult learning” – deutsche und europäische Begriffswelten [“Continuing education” and “adult learning” – German and European conceptual worlds]. In D. Gnahs, H. Kuwan, & S. Seidel (Eds), Weiterbildungsverhalten in Deutschland. Band 2: Begriffskonzepte auf dem Prüfstand [Continuing education behaviour in Germany. Volume 2: Conceptual terminology put to the test] (pp. 25–34). Bielefeld: wbv Media.Google Scholar
  33. Guthrie, R. (1995 [1994]). Civic, civil or servile? The Philanthropist, 4(12), pp. 45–57. Retrieved 20 June 2018 from https://thephilanthropist.ca/original-pdfs/Philanthropist-12-4-140.pdf.
  34. Hanushek, E. A., Schwerdt, G., Woessmann, L., & Zhang, L. (2017). General education, vocational education, and labor-market outcomes over the lifecycle. Journal of Human Resources, 52(1), 48–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  35. Heckman, J. J., Humphries, J. E., & Veramendi, G. (2017). The non-market benefits of education and ability. NBER working paper series, No. w23896. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER).Google Scholar
  36. Hustinx, L., Cnaan, R. A., & Handy, F. (2010). Navigating theories of volunteering: A hybrid map for a complex phenomenon. Journal for the theory of social behaviour, 40(4), 410–434.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  37. Kagitcibasi, C., Goksen, F., & Gulgoz, S. (2005). Functional adult literacy and empowerment of women: Impact of a functional literacy program in Turkey. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 48(6), 472–489.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  38. London, M. (2011). Lifelong learning: Introduction. In M. London (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of lifelong learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Retrieved 30 July 2018 from http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195390483.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780195390483-e-001.
  39. Manninen, J., Fleige, M., Thöne-Geyer, B., & Kil, M. (2014). Benefits of lifelong learning in Europe: Main results of the BeLL-Project. Research Report. Bonn: BeLL project/European Commission. Retrieved 20 June 2018 from http://www.bell-project.eu/cms/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/BeLL-Research-Report.pdf.
  40. Mascherini, M., Vidoni, D., & Manca, A. R. (2011). Exploring the determinants of civil participation in 14 European countries: One-size-fits none. European Sociological Review, 27(6), 790–807.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  41. McClenaghan, P. (2000). Social capital: Exploring the theoretical foundations of community development education. British Educational Research Journal, 26(5), 565–582.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  42. McIntyre, J. (2012). The development and recovery of social capital through community-based adult learning. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 31(5), 607–621.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  43. Nie, N. H., Junn, J., & Stehlik-Barry, K. (1996). Education and democratic citizenship in America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
  44. OECD (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development). (1996). Lifelong learning for all: Meeting of the education committee at ministerial level, 16–17 January 1996. Paris: OECD.Google Scholar
  45. Panitsides, E. A. (2013). Researching returns emanating from participation in adult education courses: A quantitative approach. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 32(5), 600–619.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  46. Panitsidou, E. (2012). Wider benefits of adult participation in lifelong learning courses. MENON, 1, 45–52.Google Scholar
  47. Paterson, L. (2009). Civic values and the subject matter of educational courses. Oxford Review of Education, 35(1), 81–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  48. Patrick, W. (2010). Recognising non-formal and informal learning outcomes, policies and practices: Outcomes, policies and practices. Paris: OECD publishing.Google Scholar
  49. Power. M. J., Neville, P., & O’Dwyer, M. (2011). The social value of community-based adult education in Limerick city. Limerick: Limerick City Adult Education Service. Retrieved 20 June 2018 from http://www.paulpartnership.ie/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/Community-based-Adult-Ed-FULL-d3.pdf.
  50. Preston, J. (2003). “Enrolling alone?” Lifelong learning and social capital in England. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 22(3), 235–248.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  51. Putnam, R. D. (1995). Turning in, turning out: The strange disappearance of social capital in America. Political Science and Politics, 27(4), 664–667.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  52. Qvist, H. P. Y., & Munk, M. D. (2018). The individual economic returns to volunteering in work life. European Sociological Review, 34(2), 198–210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  53. Roberts, B. W., Walton, K. E., & Viechtbauer, W. (2006). Patterns of mean-level change in personality traits across the life course: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychological bulletin, 132(1), 1–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  54. Rogers, A. (2007). Women, literacy and citizenship: A critique. International Review Of Education/Internationale Zeitschrift Für Erziehungswissenschaft, 53(2), 159–181.Google Scholar
  55. Schuller, T., Preston, J., Hammond, C., Brassett-Grundy, A., & Bynner, J. (2004). The benefits of learning: The impact of education on health, family life and social capital. London: Routledge Falmer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  56. Straubhaar, R. (2015). The stark reality of the “White Saviour” complex and the need for critical consciousness: A document analysis of the early journals of a Freirean educator. Compare: A Journal of Comparative & International Education, 45(3), 381–400.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  57. Specht, J., Egloff, B., & Schmukle, S. C. (2011). Stability and change of personality across the life course: The impact of age and major life events on mean-level and rank-order stability of the Big Five. Journal of personality and social psychology, 101(4), 862–882.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  58. Tett, L., & Maclachlan, K. (2007). Adult literacy and numeracy, social capital, learner identities and self-confidence. Studies in the Education of Adults, 39(2), 150–167.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  59. Thomas, E. (2017). The outcomes and impacts of everyday learning. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 36(3), 308–323.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  60. Treuheit, D. (2015). Bekanntmachung des Bundesministeriums für Bildung und Forschung von Richtlinien zur Förderung von Forschungsvorhaben zum Thema “nicht-monetäre Erträge von Bildung” [Official notice of the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research on guidelines for the promotion of research projects on the subject of “non-monetary income from education”]. Bonn/Berlin: Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (BMBF). Retrieved 20 June 2018 from https://www.bmbf.de/foerderungen/bekanntmachung-1004.html.
  61. UN (United Nations). (2015). Transforming our world: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. A/RES/70/1. Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 25 September 2015. New York: United Nations. Retrieved 20 June 2018 from http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/70/1&Lang=E.
  62. Van der Veen, R., & Preece, J. (2005). Poverty reduction and adult education: Beyond basic education. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 24(5), 381–391.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  63. Vera-Toscano, E., Rodrigues, M., & Costa, P. (2017). Beyond educational attainment: The importance of skills and lifelong learning for social outcomes. Evidence for Europe from PIAAC. European Journal of Education, 52(2), 217–231.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  64. Wiertz, D. (2016). Segregation in civic life: Ethnic sorting and mixing across voluntary associations. American Sociological Review, 81(4), 800–827.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  65. Wilson, J. (2012). Volunteerism research: A review essay. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 41(2), 176–212.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer Nature B.V., and UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning 2018

Authors and Affiliations

  1. 1.German Institute for Adult Education – Leibniz Centre for Lifelong LearningBonnGermany
  2. 2.University of TübingenTübingenGermany

Personalised recommendations

Cite article

Buy options