Advertisement

Reading and Writing

, Volume 31, Issue 8, pp 1787–1820 | Cite as

Within- and cross-language contributions of morphological awareness to word reading development in Chinese–English bilingual children

  • William Choi
  • Xiuli Tong
  • Katherine Ka-Sin Law
  • Kate Cain
Article
First Online:

Abstract

A growing body of cross-linguistic research has suggested that morphological awareness plays a key role in both L1 and L2 word reading among bilingual readers. However, little is known about the interaction and development of L1 and L2 morphological awareness in relation to word reading. We addressed this issue by evaluating the unique contributions of L1 Chinese and L2 English morphological awareness to word reading in both Chinese and English across Grades 2 (N = 150), 5 (N = 158), and 8 (N = 159) Hong Kong Chinese–English bilingual children. Children completed five tasks of Chinese morphological awareness which tapped for compounding awareness, homophone awareness, homographic awareness, semantic radical awareness, and affix awareness, and six English morphological judgment and analogy tasks that assessed morphological awareness at three levels: inflection, derivation, and compounding. English phonological awareness, Chinese and English vocabulary, and nonverbal ability were measured as controls. Word reading was assessed in both languages. Within-language analyses revealed that Chinese morphological awareness accounted for 27, 22, and 12% of unique variances in Chinese word reading above the control measures in Grades 2, 5, and 8 respectively. In contrast, English morphological awareness explained small but significant unique variances in English word reading, i.e., 4, 8, and 2%, across Grades 2, 5, and 8 respectively. Critically, there were cross-language influences: Chinese morphological awareness explained 4% of unique variance in English word reading in Grade 2 after controlling for IQ, English vocabulary, English phonological awareness, and English morphological awareness; English morphological awareness explained significant variances in Chinese word reading, i.e., 4, 3, and 4% in Grades 2, 5, and 8 respectively, after the relevant controls. These findings suggest a bi-directional cross-language transfer of morphological awareness to word reading in L1 Chinese and L2 English. However, the direction of its transfer may be constrained by some language-specific morphological features.

Keywords

Morphological awareness Cross-language transfer Word reading Biliteracy acquisition 
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

Notes

Acknowledgements

This research was supported in part by the Hong Kong-UK joint research scheme ESRC/RGC (ES/K010425/1), ECS/RGC Early Career Scheme (27402514), and the General Research Fund (17673216) from the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Research Grants Council, and The University of Hong Kong Seed Funding Programme for Basic Research (201410159033) to Xiuli Tong.

References

  1. Abu-Rabia, S. (2001). Testing the interdependence hypothesis among native adult bilingual Russian–English students. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 30(4), 437–455.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  2. Adams, M. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
  3. Anglin, J. M. (1993). Vocabulary development: A morphological analysis. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 58(10), 1–166.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  4. Bar-On, A., & Ravid, D. (2011). Morphological decoding in Hebrew pseudowords: A developmental study. Applied Psycholinguistics, 32, 553–581.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  5. Bertram, R., Laine, M., Schreuder, R., Baayen, R. H., & Hyönä, J. (2000). Affixal homonymy triggers full form storage, even with inflected words, even in a morphologically rich language. Cognition, 74, B13–B25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  6. Bindman, M. (2004). Grammatical awareness across languages and the role of social context: Evidence from English and Hebrew. In T. Nunes & P. Bryant (Eds.), Handbook of children’s literacy (pp. 691–709). Dordrecht: Kluwer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  7. Carlisle, J. F. (1995). Morphological awareness and early reading achievement. In L. B. Feldman (Ed.), Morphological aspects of language processing (pp. 189–209). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
  8. Carlisle, J. F. (2000). Awareness of the structure and meaning of morphologically complex words: Impact on reading. Reading and Writing, 12, 169–190.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  9. Carlisle, J. F. (2003). Morphology matters in learning to read: A commentary. Reading Psychology, 24(3–4), 291–322. doi: 10.1080/02702710390227369.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  10. Carlisle, J. F., & Nomanbhoy, D. M. (1993). Phonological and morphological awareness in first graders. Applied Psycholinguistics, 14(2), 177–195. doi: 10.1017/S0142716400009541.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  11. Chan, A. Y. (2004). Syntactic transfer: Evidence from the interlanguage of Hong Kong Chinese ESL learners. Modern Language Journal, 88(1), 56–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  12. Chen, X., Hao, M., Geva, E., Zhu, J., & Shu, H. (2008). The role of compound awareness in Chinese children’s vocabulary acquisition and character reading. Reading and Writing, 22(5), 615–631. doi: 10.1007/s11145-008-9127-9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  13. Chen, W. L., Ng, S. Y. J., & Lo, O. L. (2011). 新編啟思中國語文 (New Chinese language textbook). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
  14. Cho, J. R., McBride-Chang, C., & Park, S. G. (2008). Phonological awareness and morphological awareness: Differential associations to regular and irregular word recognition in early Korean Hangul readers. Reading and Writing, 32, 255–274.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  15. Choi, W., Tong, X., & Cain, K. (2016). Lexical prosody beyond first-language boundary: Chinese lexical tone sensitivity predicts English reading comprehension. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 148, 70–86. doi: 10.1016/j.jecp.2016.04.002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  16. Choi, W., Tong, X., & Singh, L. (2017). From lexical tone to lexical stress: A cross-language mediation model for Cantonese children learning English as a second language. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 492. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00492.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  17. Clark, E. V., Gelman, S. A., & Lane, N. M. (1985). Compound nouns and category structure in young children. Child Development, 56(1), 84–94. doi: 10.2307/1130176.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  18. Cummins, J. (1981). The role of primary language development in promoting educational success for language minority students. In Schooling and language minority students (pp. 3–49). Sacramento, CA: California Department of Education.Google Scholar
  19. Deacon, S. H., & Kirby, J. R. (2004). Morphological awareness: Just “more phonological”? The roles of morphological and phonological awareness in reading development. Applied Psycholinguistics, 25(2), 223–238. doi: 10.1017/S0124716404001117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  20. Deacon, S. H., Wade-Woolley, L., & Kirby, J. (2007). Crossover: The role of morphological awareness in French Immersion children’s reading. Developmental Psychology, 43(3), 732–746.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  21. Dunn, L. M., Dunn, D. M., Styles, B., & Sewell, J. (2009). British picture vocabulary scale (3rd ed.). London: GL Assessment.Google Scholar
  22. Durgunoğlu, A. Y., Nagy, W. E., & Hancin-Bhatt, B. J. (1993). Cross-language transfer of phonological awareness. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85(3), 453–465.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  23. Ehri, L. C. (1995). Phases of development in learning to read words by sight. Journal of Research in Reading, 18(2), 116–125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  24. Figueredo, L. (2006). Using the known to chart the unknown: A review of first-language influence on the development of English-as-a-second-language spelling skill. Reading and Writing, 19, 873–905.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  25. Fowler, C. A., Napps, S. E., & Feldman, L. B. (1985). Relations among regular and irregular morphologically related words in the lexicon as revealed by repetition priming. Memory and Cognition, 13, 241–255.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  26. Frost, R., & Grainger, J. (2000). Cross-linguistic perspectives on morphological processing: An introduction. Language and Cognitive Processes, 15(4/5), 321–328.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  27. Geary, D. C. (2002). Principles of evolutionary educational psychology. Learning and Individual Differences, 12, 317–345.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  28. Goto, H. (1971). Auditory perception by normal Japanese adults of the sounds “l” and “r”. Neuropsychologia, 9(3), 317–323.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  29. Hamawand, Z. (2011). Morphology in English: Word formation in cognitive grammar. London: Bloomsbury Publishing.Google Scholar
  30. He, K., & Li, D. (1987). Xiandai Hanyu Sanqian Changyongci Biao [Three thousands commonly used words in Mandarin]. Beijing: Beijing Normal University.Google Scholar
  31. He, Y. Q., Wang, Q. Y., & Anderson, R. (2005). Chinese children’s use of subcharacter information about pronunciation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97(4), 572–579. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.97.4.572.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  32. Hernandez, A. E., Bates, E. A., & Avila, L. X. (1994). On-line sentence interpretation in Spanish–English bilinguals: What does it mean to be “in between”? Applied Psycholinguistics, 15, 417–446.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  33. Ho, C. S. H., Chan, D. W., Tsang, S. M., & Lee, S. H. (2000). The Hong Kong test of specific learning difficulties in reading and writing (HKT-SpLD) manual. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Specific Learning Difficulties Team.Google Scholar
  34. Hodge, B., & Louie, K. (1998). The politics of Chinese language and culture: The art of reading dragons. London & New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
  35. Hong Kong Census and Statistics Department. (2015). Hong Kong annual digest of statistics. Retrieved from http://www.statistics.gov.hk/pub/B10100032015AN15B0100.pdf.
  36. Ke, S., & Xiao, F. (2015). Cross-linguistic transfer of morphological awareness between Chinese and English. Language Awareness, 24(4), 355–380.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  37. Kellerman, E. (1979). Transfer and non-transfer: Where we are now. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 2(1), 37–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  38. Kirby, J. R., Deacon, S. H., Bowers, P. N., Izenberg, L., Wade-Woolley, L., & Parrila, R. (2012). Children’s morphological awareness and reading ability. Reading and Writing, 25, 389–410.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  39. Kline, R. B. (2015). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. New York, NY: Guilford publications.Google Scholar
  40. Ku, Y. M., & Anderson, R. C. (2003). Development of morphological awareness in Chinese and English. Reading and Writing, 16(5), 399–422.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  41. Kuo, L. J., & Anderson, R. C. (2006). Morphological awareness and learning to read: A cross-language perspective. Educational Psychologist, 41(3), 161–180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  42. Kuperman, V., Stadthagen-Gonzalez, H., & Brysbaert, M. (2012). Age-of-acquisition ratings for 30,000 English words. Behavior Research Methods, 44, 978–990. doi: 10.3758/s13428-012-0210-4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  43. Leong, C. K., Hau, K. T., Cheng, P. W., & Tan, L. H. (2005). Exploring two-wave reciprocal structural relations among orthographic knowledge, phonological sensitivity, and reading and spelling of English words by Chinese students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97(4), 591–600. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.97.4.591.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  44. Li, H., Shu, H., McBride-Chang, C., Liu, H., & Peng, H. (2012). Chinese children’s character recognition: Visuo-orthographic, phonological processing and morphological skills. Journal of Research in Reading, 35(3), 287–307. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9817.2010.01460.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  45. Li, C. N., & Thompson, S. A. (1981). Mandarin Chinese: A functional reference grammar. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
  46. Linguistic Society of Hong Kong (LSHK). (1997). Hong Kong Jyut Ping Characters Table. Hong Kong: Linguistic Society of Hong Kong Press.Google Scholar
  47. Liu, P. D., & McBride-Chang, C. (2010). What is morphological awareness? Tapping lexical compounding awareness in Chinese third graders. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(1), 62–73. doi: 10.1037/a0016933.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  48. Liu, P. D., McBride-Chang, C., Wong, T. T. Y., Shu, H., & Wong, A. M. Y. (2013). Morphological awareness in Chinese: Unique associations of homophone awareness and lexical compounding to word reading and vocabulary knowledge in Chinese children. Applied Psycholinguistics, 34(4), 755–775. doi: 10.1017/S014271641200001X.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  49. Marcolini, S., Traficante, D., Zoccolotti, C., & Burani, C. (2011). Word frequency modulates morpheme-based reading in poor and skilled Italian readers. Applied Psycholinguistics, 32, 513–532. doi: 10.1017/S0142716411000191.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  50. Marslen-Wilson, W. D., Tyler, L. K., Waksler, R., & Older, L. (1994). Morphology and meaning in the English mental lexicon. Psychological Review, 101, 3–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  51. Masterson, J., Stuart, M., Dixon, M., & Lovejoy, S. (2003). Children’s printed word database. Retrieved from http://www.essex.ac.uk/psychology/cpwd/.
  52. McBride-Chang, C., Cho, J. R., Liu, H., Wagner, R. K., Shu, H., Zhou, A., et al. (2005). Changing models across cultures: Associations of phonological awareness and morphological structure awareness with vocabulary and word recognition in second graders from Beijing, Hong Kong, Korea, and the United States. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 92(2), 140–160. doi: 10.1016/j.jecp.2005.03.009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  53. McBride-Chang, C., Manis, F. R., Seidenberg, M. S., Custodio, R. G., & Doi, L. M. (1993). Print exposure as a predictor of word reading and reading comprehension in disabled and nondisabled readers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85(2), 230–238.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  54. McBride-Chang, C., Shu, H., Zhou, A., Wat, C. P., & Wagner, R. K. (2003). Morphological awareness uniquely predicts young children’s Chinese character recognition. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 743–751. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.743.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  55. McBride-Chang, C., Tardif, T., Cho, J. R., Shu, H. U. A., Fletcher, P., Stokes, S. F., et al. (2008). What’s in a word? Morphological awareness and vocabulary knowledge in three languages. Applied Psycholinguistics, 29(3), 437–462. doi: 10.1017/S014271640808020X.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  56. McCutchen, D., Logan, B., & Biangardi-Orpe, U. (2009). Making meaning: Children’s sensitivity to morphological information during word reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 44(4), 360–376.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  57. McGinnis, S. (1995). Student attitudes and approaches in the learning of written Chinese. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Association Applied Linguistics, Long Beach, CA.Google Scholar
  58. Nagy, W., Berninger, V. W., & Abbott, R. D. (2006). Contributions of morphology beyond phonology to literacy outcomes of upper elementary and middle-school students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98(1), 134–147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  59. Nagy, W., Berninger, V., Abbott, R., Vaughan, K., & Vermeulen, K. (2003). Relationship of morphology and other language skills to literacy skills in at-risk second-grade readers and at-risk fourth-grade writers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 730–742. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.730.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  60. Nagy, W. E., Carlisle, J. F., & Goodwin, A. P. (2014). Morphological knowledge and literacy acquisition. Journal of Learning Disability, 47(3), 3–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  61. Nunes, T., Bryant, P., & Bindman, M. (1997). Morphological spelling strategies: Developmental stages and processes. Developmental Psychology, 33, 637–649.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  62. Packard, J. (2000). The morphology of Chinese: A linguistic and cognitive approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  63. Pasquarella, A., Chen, X., Lam, K., Luo, Y. C., & Ramirez, G. (2011). Cross-language transfer of morphological awareness in Chinese–English bilinguals. Journal of Research in Reading, 34(1), 23–42. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9817.2010.01484.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  64. Perfetti, C. A., Liu, Y., & Tan, L. H. (2005). The lexical constituency model: Some implications of research on Chinese for general theories of reading. Psychological Review, 112(1), 43–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  65. Pollatsek, A., Hyönä, J., & Bertram, R. (2000). The role of morphological constituents in reading Finnish compound words. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 26(2), 820–833.Google Scholar
  66. Roman, A. A., Kirby, J. R., Parrila, R. K., Wade-Woolley, L., & Deacon, S. H. (2009). Toward a comprehensive view of the skills involved in word reading in Grades 4, 6, and 8. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 102(1), 96–113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  67. Shu, H., & Anderson, R. C. (1997). Role of radical awareness in the character and word acquisition of Chinese children. Reading Research Quarterly, 32, 78–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  68. Shu, H., Chen, X., Anderson, R. C., Wu, N., & Xuan, Y. (2003). Properties of school Chinese: Implications for learning to read. Child Development, 74(1), 27–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  69. Siegel, L. S. (2008). Morphological awareness skills of English language learners and children with dyslexia. Topics in Language Disorders, 28(1), 15–27. doi: 10.1097/01.adt.0000311413.75804.60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  70. Sprenger-Charolles, L., Siegel, L. S., & Béchennec, D. (1998). Phonological mediation and semantic and orthographic factors in silent reading in French. Scientific Studies of Reading, 2(1), 3–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  71. Stanovich, K. E., & Cunningham, A. E. (1992). Studying the consequences of literacy within a literate society: The cognitive correlates of print exposure. Memory and Cognition, 20, 51–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  72. Sun, H. L., Sun, D. J., Huang, J. P., Li, D. J., & Xing, H. B. (1996). The description on the corpus system of modern Chinese studies. In Z. S. Luo & S. L. Yuan (Eds.), Studies of Chinese and Chinese character in the computer era. Beijing: Tsinghua University Publisher.Google Scholar
  73. Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2001). Using multivariate statistics. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.Google Scholar
  74. Taft, M., & Forster, K. I. (1975). Lexical storage and retrieval of prefixed words. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 14, 638–647.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  75. Taylor, B. P. (1975). The use of overgeneralization and transfer learning strategies by elementary and intermediate students of ESL. Language Learning, 25(1), 73–107. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-1770.1975.tb00110.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  76. Tong, X., Lee, S. M. K., Lee, M. M. L., & Burnham, D. (2015a). A tale of two features: Perception of Cantonese lexical tone and English lexical stress in Cantonese–English bilinguals. PLoS ONE, 10(11), e0142896. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0142896.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  77. Tong, X., & McBride-Chang, C. (2010). Developmental models of learning to read Chinese words. Developmental Psychology, 46(6), 1662–1676. doi: 10.1037/a0020611.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  78. Tong, X., McBride-Chang, C., Shu, H., & Wong, A. M. (2009). Morphological awareness, orthographic knowledge, and spelling errors: Keys to understanding early Chinese literacy acquisition. Scientific Studies of Reading, 13(5), 426–452. doi: 10.1080/10888430903162910.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  79. Tong, X., McBride-Chang, C., Wong, A. M. Y., Shu, H., Reitsma, P., & Rispens, J. (2011). Longitudinal predictors of very early Chinese literacy acquisition. Journal of Research in Reading, 34(3), 315–332. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9817.2009.01426.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  80. Tong, X., Tong, X., & McBride-Chang, C. (2015b). A tale of two writing systems: Double dissociation and metalinguistic transfer between Chinese and English word reading among Hong Kong children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 48(2), 130–145. doi: 10.1177/0022219413492854.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  81. Torgesen, J. K., Wagner, R. K., & Rashotte, C. (2011). TOWRE-2 Test of word reading efficiency. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.Google Scholar
  82. Verhoeven, L., & Perfetti, C. A. (2011). Morphological processing in reading acquisition: A cross-linguistic perspective. Applied Psycholinguistics, 32, 457–466.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  83. Verhoeven, L., Schreuer, R., & Haarman, V. (2006). Prefix identification in the reading of Dutch bisyllabic words. Reading and Writing, 19, 651–668.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  84. Wagner, R. K., Torgesen, J. K., & Rashotte, C. A. (1999). CTOPP: Comprehensive test of phonological processing. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.Google Scholar
  85. Wang, M., Cheng, C., & Chen, S. W. (2006). Contribution of morphological awareness to Chinese–English biliteracy acquisition. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98(3), 542–553. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.98.3.542.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  86. Wang, M., & Geva, E. (2003). Spelling performance of Chinese children using English as a second language: Lexical and visual–orthographic processes. Applied Psycholinguistics, 24(1), 1–25. doi: 10.1017/S0142716403000018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  87. Wang, M., Yang, C., & Cheng, C. (2009). The contributions of phonology, orthography, and morphology in Chinese–English biliteracy acquisition. Applied Psycholinguistics, 30(2), 291–314. doi: 10.1017/S0142716409090122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  88. Wechsler, D. (2004). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Fourth UK Edition: Administrative and Scoring Manual. London: The Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
  89. Yamashita, J. (2002). Mutual compensation between L1 reading ability and L2 language proficiency in L2 reading comprehension. Journal of Research in Reading, 25(1), 81–95. doi: 10.1111/1467-9817.00160.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  90. Yin, L., Anderson, R. C., & Zhu, J. (2007). Stages in Chinese children’s reading of English words. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(4), 852–866. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.99.4.852.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  91. Yu, P. L. (2012). 說故事學典故: 成語篇 (Learning allusion through stories: Chinese four-characters idioms). Hong Kong: Hok Man Publication.Google Scholar
  92. Zhang, J., Anderson, R. C., Li, H., Dong, Q., Wu, X., & Zhang, Y. (2010). Cross-language transfer of insight into the structure of compound words. Reading and Writing, 23, 311–336. doi: 10.1007/s11145-009-9205-7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  93. Zhou, Y. L., McBride-Chang, C., Fong, C. Y. C., Wong, T. T. Y., & Cheung, S. K. (2012). A comparison of phonological awareness, lexical compounding, and homophone training for Chinese word reading in Hong Kong kindergartners. Early Education & Development, 23(4), 475–492. doi: 10.1080/10409289.2010.530478.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2017

Authors and Affiliations

  • William Choi
    • 1
  • Xiuli Tong
    • 1
  • Katherine Ka-Sin Law
    • 1
  • Kate Cain
    • 2
  1. 1.Division of Speech and Hearing Sciences, Faculty of EducationThe University of Hong KongPok Fu LamHong Kong
  2. 2.Department of PsychologyLancaster UniversityLancasterUK

Personalised recommendations

Cite article

Buy options