Abstract
This study presents results from a randomized controlled trial of the Protecting Strong African American Families (ProSAAF) program, a family-centered intervention designed to promote strong couple, coparenting, and parent-child relationships in two-parent African American families. A total of 346 African American couples with an early adolescent child participated; all families lived in rural, low-income communities in the southern USA. Intent-to-treat growth curve analyses involving three waves and spanning 17 months indicated that ProSAAF participants, compared with control participants, reported greater improvements in relationship communication, confidence, satisfaction, partner support, coparenting, and parenting. More than 80% of the couples attended all six of the in-home, facilitator-led sessions; costs to implement the program averaged $1739 per family. The findings inform the ongoing debate surrounding prevention programs for low-income and ethnic minority couples.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
Results for females remained unchanged in non-dyadic analyses that included the addition of four female participants from same-sex dyads.
References
Amato, P. R. (2010). Research on divorce: Continuing trends and new developments. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(3), 650–666. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00723.x.
Amato, P. R. (2012). Marital quality in African American marriages. Oklahoma City: National Healthy Marriage Resource Center.
Amato, P. R. (2014). Does social and economic disadvantage moderate the effects of relationship education on unwed couples? An analysis of data from the 15-month building strong families evaluation. Family Relations, 63(3), 343–355. https://doi.org/10.1111/fare.12069.
Barton, A. W., Beach, S. R., Hurt, T. R., Fincham, F. D., Stanley, S. M., Kogan, S. M., & Brody, G. H. (2015). Determinants and long-term effects of attendance levels in a marital enrichment program for African American couples. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 42(2), 272–287. https://doi.org/10.1111/jmft.12126.
Barton, A. W., Beach, S. R. H., Lavner, J. A., Bryant, C. M., Kogan, S. M., & Brody, G. H. (2017). Is communication a mechanism of relationship education effects among rural African Americans? Journal of Marriage and Family, 79, 1450–1461. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12416.
Beach, S. R. H., Barton, A. W., Lei, M. K., Brody, G. H., Kogan, S. M., Hurt, T. R.,. .. Stanley, S. M. (2014). The effect of communication change on long-term reductions in child exposure to conflict: Impact of the Promoting Strong African American Families (ProSAAF) program. Family Process, 53(4), 580–595. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12085.
Beach, S. R. H., Barton, A. W., Lei, M. K., Mandara, J., Wells, A. C., Kogan, S. M., & Brody, G. H. (2016). Decreasing substance use risk among African American youth: Parent-based mechanisms of change. Prevention Science, 1–12. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-016-0651-6.
Bodenmann, G., Hilpert, P., Nussbeck, F. W., & Bradbury, T. N. (2014). Enhancement of couples’ communication and dyadic coping by a self-directed approach: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 82(4), 580–591. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036356.
Brody, G. H., Murry, V. M., Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F. X., Molgaard, V., Mcnair, L., ... Neubaum-Carlan, E. (2004). The Strong African American Families program: Translating research into prevention programming. Child Development, 75(3), 900–917. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00713.x.
Brody, G. H., Murry, V. M., Chen, Y.-F., Kogan, S. M., & Brown, A. C. (2006). Effects of family risk factors on dosage and efficacy of a family-centered preventive intervention for rural African Americans. Prevention Science, 7(3), 281–291. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-006-0032-7.
Brown, L. D., Feinberg, M. E., & Kan, M. L. (2012). Predicting engagement in a transition to parenthood program for couples. Evaluation and Program Planning, 35(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2011.05.001.
Conger, R. D., & Elder Jr., G. H. (1994). Families in troubled times. New York: Aldine De Grutyer.
Cowan, P. A., & Cowan, C. P. (2014). Controversies in couple relationship education (CRE): Overlooked evidence and implications for research and policy. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 20(4), 361–383. https://doi.org/10.1037/law0000025.
Culp, L. N., & Beach, S. R. H. (1998). Marriage and depressive symptoms. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22(4), 647–663. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1998.tb00183.x.
Cutrona, C. E., Russell, D. W., Burzette, R. G., Wesner, K. A., & Bryant, C. M. (2011). Predicting relationship stability among midlife African American couples. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 79(6), 814–825. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025874.
Denavas-Walt, C., & Proctor, B. D. (2014). Income and poverty in the United States: 2013 (current population reports P60-249). Washington: U.S. Census Bureau.
Doss, B. D., Cicila, L. N., Georgia, E. J., Roddy, M. K., Nowlan, K. M., Benson, L. A., & Christensen, A. (2016). A randomized controlled trial of the web-based OurRelationship program: Effects on relationship and individual functioning. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 84(4), 285–296. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000063.
Erel, O., & Burman, B. (1995). Interrelatedness of marital relations and parent-child relations: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 118(1), 108–132. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.118.1.108.
Feinberg, M. E., Jones, D. E., Kan, M. L., & Goslin, M. C. (2010). Effects of family foundations on parents and children: 3.5 years after baseline. Journal of Family Psychology, 24(5), 532–542. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020837.
Feinberg, M. E., Brown, L. D., & Kan, M. L. (2012). A multi-domain self-report measure of coparenting. Parenting, 12(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295192.2012.638870.
Gross, D., Julion, W., & Fogg, L. (2001). What motivates participation and dropout among low-income urban families of color in a prevention intervention?*. Family Relations, 50(3), 246–254. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2001.00246.x.
Gupta, S. K. (2011). Intention-to-treat concept: A review. Perspectives in Clinical Research, 2(3), 109–112. https://doi.org/10.4103/2229-3485.83221.
Herman, P. M., Mahrer, N. E., Wolchik, S. A., Porter, M. M., Jones, S., & Sandler, I. N. (2015). Cost-benefit analysis of a preventive intervention for divorced families: Reduction in mental health and justice system service use costs 15 years later. Prevention Science, 16(4), 586–596. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-014-0527-6.
Hurt, T. R., Beach, S. R. H., Stokes, L. A., Bush, P. L., Sheats, K. J., & Robinson, S. G. (2012). Engaging African American men in empirically based marriage enrichment programs: Lessons from two focus groups on the ProSAAM project. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 18(3), 312–315. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028697.
Jenkins, N. H., & Saiz, C. C. (1995). The communication skills test. Unpublished manuscript, University of Denver. Denver.
Johnson, M. D. (2012). Healthy marriage initiatives: On the need for empiricism in policy implementation. American Psychologist, 67(4), 296–308. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027743.
Johnson, M. D., & Bradbury, T. N. (2015). Contributions of social learning theory to the promotion of healthy relationships: Asset or liability? Journal of Family Theory & Review, 7(1), 13–27. https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12057.
Jones, D. E., Feinberg, M. E., & Hostetler, M. L. (2014). Costs to implement an effective transition-to-parenthood program for couples: Analysis of the family foundations program. Evaluation and Program Planning, 44, 59–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2014.02.001.
Kumpfer, K. L., Molgaard, V., & Spoth, R. (1996). The Strengthening Families Program for the prevention of delinquency and drug use. In R. D. Peters & R. J. McMahon (Eds.), Preventing childhood disorders, substance use, and delinquency. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Kumpfer, K. L., Alvarado, R., Smith, P., & Bellamy, N. (2002). Cultural sensitivity and adaptation in family-based prevention interventions. Prevention Science, 3(3), 241–246. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1019902902119.
Lavner, J. A., Karney, B. R., & Bradbury, T. N. (2015). New directions for policies aimed at strengthening low-income couples. Behavioral Science and Policy, 1, 13–24.
Lerman, R. (2013). Economic perspectives on marriage: Causes, consequences, and public policy. In L. Cohen & J. D. Wright (Eds.), Research handbook on the economics of family law. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing.
Lundquist, E., Hsueh, J., Lowenstein, A. E., Faucetta, K., Gubits, D., Michalopoulos, C., & Knox, V. (2014). A family-strengthening program for low-income families: Final impacts from the supporting healthy marriage evaluation. New York: MDRC.
Markman, H. J., Stanley, S. M., Blumberg, S., Jenkins, N. H., & Whaley, C. (2004). Twelve hours to a great marriage. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Marks, L. D., Hopkins, K., Chaney, C., Monroe, P. A., Nesteruk, O., & Sasser, D. D. (2008). “Together, we are strong”: A qualitative study of happy, enduring African American marriages. Family Relations, 57(2), 172–185. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2008.00492.x.
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998-2015). Mplus user’s guide (7th ed.). Los Angeles: Muthén & Muthén.
National Academies of Sciences Engineering and Medicine. (2016). Advancing the power of economic evidence to inform investments in children, youth, and families. Washington: The National Academies Press.
Neff, L. A. (2012). Putting marriage in its context: The influence of external stress on early marital development. In L. Campbell & T. J. Loving (Eds.), Interdisciplinary research on close relationships: The case for integration. Washington: APA Books.
Norton, R. (1983). Measuring marital quality: A critical look at the dependent variable. Journal of Marriage and Family, 45(1), 141–151.
Owen, J., Quirk, K., Bergen, C., Inch, L. J., & France, T. (2012). The effectiveness of PREP with lower-income racial/ethnic minority couples. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 38, 296–307. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-0606.2012.00294.x.
Randall, A. K., & Bodenmann, G. (2009). The role of stress on close relationships and marital satisfaction. Clinical Psychology Review, 29(2), 105–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2008.10.004.
Raudenbush, S. W., Brennan, R. T., & Barnett, R. C. (1995). A multivariate hierarchical model for studying psychological change within married couples. Journal of Family Psychology, 9(2), 161–174. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.9.2.161.
Raudenbush, S. W., Bryk, A. S., & Congdon, R. (2004). HLM 6 for Windows [Computer software]. Skokie: Scientific Software International, Inc..
Rhoades, G. K. (2015). The effectiveness of the within our reach relationship education program for couples: Findings from a federal randomized trial. Family Process, 54(4), 672–685. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12148.
Robles, T. F., Slatcher, R. B., Trombello, J. M., & Mcginn, M. M. (2014). Marital quality and health: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 140(1), 140–187. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031859.
Stanley, S. M., Hoyer, L., & Trathen, D. W. (1994). The confidence scale. Unpublished manuscript. University of Denver. Denver
Stanley, S. M., Blumberg, S., & Markman, H. J. (1999). Helping couples fight for their marriages: The PREP approach. In R. Berger & M. Hannah (Eds.), Handbook of preventive approaches in couple therapy (pp. 279–303). New York: Brunner/Mazel.
Stanley, S. M., Johnson, C. A., Amato, P. R., & Markman, H. J. (2006). Premarital education, marital quality, and marital stability: Findings from a large, random household survey. Journal of Family Psychology, 20(1), 117–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.20.1.117.
Stanley, S. M., Rhoades, G. K., Loew, B. A., Allen, E. S., Carter, S., Osborne, L. J.,. .. Markman, H. J. (2014). A randomized controlled trial of relationship education in the U.S. Army: 2-year outcomes. Family Relations: an Interdisciplinary Journal of Applied Family Studies, 63(4), 482–495. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/fare.12083.
Trail, T. E., & Karney, B. R. (2012). What's (not) wrong with low-income marriages. Journal of Marriage and Family, 74(3), 413–427. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2012.00977.x.
Whisman, M. A., & Uebelakcer, L. A. (2006). Impairment and distress associated with relationship discord in a national sample of married or cohabiting adults. Journal of Family Psychology, 20, 369–377. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.20.3.369.
Williamson, H. C., Altman, N., Hsueh, J., & Bradbury, T. N. (2016). Effects of relationship education on couple communication and satisfaction: A randomized controlled trial with low-income couples. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 84(2), 156–166. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000056.
Wood, R. G., Moore, Q., Clarkwest, A., & Killewald, A. (2014). The long-term effects of building strong families: A program for unmarried parents. Journal of Marriage and Family, 76(2), 446–463. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12094.
Zaveri, H., Burwik, A., & Maher, E. (2014). The potential for cost savings from home visiting due to reductions in child maltreatment. Chicago: Chapin Hall.
Acknowledgements
The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institute of Health and Human Development, the National Institute on Drug Abuse, or the National Institutes of Health. The authors thank Eileen Neubaum-Carlan for her editorial assistance in the preparation of this article. We also thank the families for their participation in this research.
Funding
This research was supported by Award Number R01 HD069439 from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development and Award Number P30 DA027827 from the National Institute on Drug Abuse.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Research Involving Human Participants
All procedures were approved by the Institutional Review Board of the university at which the research was conducted and complied with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from all couples prior to data collection and program participation.
Electronic Supplementary Material
ESM 1
(DOCX 88 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Barton, A.W., Beach, S.R.H., Wells, A.C. et al. The Protecting Strong African American Families Program: a Randomized Controlled Trial with Rural African American Couples. Prev Sci 19, 904–913 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-018-0895-4
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-018-0895-4