Abstract
The increasing occurrence of extreme weather and climate events raised concerns in regard to hazard mitigation and climate adaptation. Local municipal planning mechanisms play a fundamental role in increasing a community’s capacity toward long-term resiliency. This study employs the content analysis method to evaluate the 95 selected cities located in the US Federal Emergency Management Agency Region VII and examine how these local plans, including local comprehensive plans (CPs), hazard mitigation plans (HMPs), and local emergency operations plans (EOPs), prepare communities for climate change and possible extreme events. Results indicate that local plans delineated multiple resources and diverse strategies to reduce community climatic risks, where HMPs have medium-level preparation, and CPs and EOPs have limited level preparation. Local HMPs lead in mitigating for impacts from potential extreme events, but both local CPs and EOPs are proactively adapted for climatic risks. Common strengths and weaknesses exist between different planning mechanisms. Large variations exist among plans due to varying jurisdictions among cities. However, the plans score similarly overall—higher on strategies and factual base but are short of clear and detailed goals, objectives, and agendas. Finally, despite the diverse vertical and horizontal outreach, there is inadequate integration among local planning mechanisms to share climate hazard information.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Agrawal A, McSweeney C, Perrin N (2008) Local institutions and climate change adaptation. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTSOCIALDEVELOPMENT/Resources/244362-1164107274725/3182370-1164201144397/Local_Institutions-Climate_Change_Adaptation_note113.pdf. Accessed 10 Jan 2018
Amundsen H, Berglund F, Westskog H (2010) Overcoming barriers to climate change adaptation—a question of multilevel governance? Environ Plan C Gov Policy 28(2):276–289
Babcock M (2013) State Hazard mitigation plans and climate change: rating the States. Columbia Law School Center for Climate Change Law, November. https://web.law.columbia.edu/sites/default/files/microsites/climate-change/files/Publications/Students/SHMP%20Survey_Final.pdf. Accessed 10 Jan 2018
Baker I, Peterson A, Brown G, McAlpine C (2012) Local government response to the impacts of climate change: an evaluation of local climate adaptation plans. Landsc Urban Plan 107(2):127–136
Bassett E, Shandas V (2010) Innovation and climate action planning. J Am Plann Assoc 76(4):435–450
Baynham M, Stevens M (2014) Are we planning effectively for climate change? An evaluation of official community plans in British Columbia. J Environ Plan Manage 57(4):557–587
Berke P, Godschalk D (2009) Searching for the good plan: a meta-analysis of plan quality studies. CPL Bibliogr 23(3):227–240
Berke P, Kaiser EJ (2006) Urban land use planning, 5th edition (April 10, 2006). University of Illinois Press, Champaign
Berke P, Smith G, Lyles W (2012) Planning for resiliency: evaluation of state hazard mitigation plans under the disaster mitigation act. Nat Hazards Rev 13(2):139–149
Berke PR, Lyles W, Smith G (2014) Impacts of federal and state hazard mitigation policies on local land use policy. J Plan Educ Res 34(1):60–76
Berke P, Newman G, Lee J, CombsT Kolosna C, Salvesen D (2015) Evaluation of networks of plans and vulnerability to hazards and climate change: a resilience scorecard. J Am Plan As 81(4):287–302
Bierbaum R, Smith JB, Lee A, Blair M, Carter L, ChapinIII FS, Fleming P, Ruffo S, Ruffo S, Stults M, McNeeley S, Wasley E, Verduzco L (2013) A comprehensive review of climate adaptation in the United States: more than before, but less than needed. Mitig Adapt Strat Global Change 18(3):361–406
Bierbaum R, Lee A, Smith J, Blair M, Carter LM, Chapin FS, Fleming III P, Ruffo S, McNeeley S, Stults M, Verduzco L, Seyller E (2014) Chapter. 28: Adaptation. In: Melillo JM, Richmond Terese TC, Yohe GW (eds) Climate change impacts in the United States: The Third National Climate Assessment, U.S. Global Change Research Program, pp 670–706
Brody SD, Zahran S, Grover H, Vedlitz A (2008) A spatial analysis of local climate change policy in the United States: risk, stress, and opportunity. Landsc Urban Plan 87(1):33–41
EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency) (2015) Climate Change in the United States: Benefits of Global Action. https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-06/documents/cirareport.pdf. Accessed 10 Jan 2018
FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency) (2010) Developing and maintaining emergency operations plans.https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/20130726-1828-25045-0014/cpg_101_comprehensive_preparedness_guide_developing_and_maintaining_emergency_operations_plans_2010.pdf. Accessed 10 Jan 2018
FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency) (2011a) Local mitigation plan review guide. https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/20130726-1809-25045-7498/plan_review_guide_final_9_30_11.pdf. Accessed 10 Jan 2018
FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency) (2011b) FEMA climate change adaptation policy statement https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/20130726-1919-25045-3330/508_climate_change_policy_statement.pdf. Accessed 10 Jan 2018
FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency) (2013a) Integrating hazard mitigation into local planning. https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/20130726-1908-25045-0016/integrating_hazmit.pdf. Accessed 10 Jan 2018
FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency) (2013b) Integrating the Local Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan into a Community’s Comprehensive Plan. https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/1388432170894-6f744a8afa8929171dc62d96da067b9a/FEMA-X-IntegratingLocalMitigation.pdf. Accessed 10 Jan 2018
FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency) (2013c) Local mitigation planning handbook. https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/20130726-1910-25045-9160/fema_local_mitigation_handbook.pdf. Accessed 10 Jan 2018
Field CB (2012) Managing the risks of extreme events and disasters to advance climate change adaptation: special report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge University Press. https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/special-reports/srex/SREX_Full_Report.pdf. Accessed 10 Jan 2018
Fu X, Gomaa M, Deng Y, Peng Z (2017) Adaptation planning for sea level rise: a study of US coastal cities. J Environ Plann Manage 60(2):249–265
Gasper R, Blohm A, Ruth M (2011) Social and economic impacts of climate change on the urban environment. Curr Opin Environ Sustain 3(3):150–157
Geneletti D, Zardo L (2016) Ecosystem-based adaptation in cities: an analysis of European urban climate adaptation plans. Land Use Policy 50:38–47
Guyadeen D (2018) Do practicing planners value plan quality? Insights from a survey of planning professionals in Ontario, Canada. J Am Plan As 84(1):21–32
Hamin EM (2011) Integrating adaptation and mitigation in local climate change planning. Climate Change and Land Policies
Horney J, Naimi AI, Lyles W, Simon M, Salvesen D, Berke P (2012) Assessing the relationship between hazard mitigation plan quality and rural status in a cohort of 57 counties from 3 states in the southeastern US. Challenges 3(2):183–193
Horney J, Nguyen M, Salvesen D, Dwyer C, Cooper J, Berke P (2016) Assessing the quality of rural hazard mitigation plans in the southeastern United States. J Plan Educ Res 37(1):56–65
Hu Q, Tang Z, Zhang L, Xu Y, Wu X, Zhang L (2018) Evaluating climate change adaptation efforts on the U.S. 50 States’ hazard mitigation plans. Nat Hazards 92:783–804
Krippendorff K (2012) Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology, 3rd edn. Sage, Thousand Oaks
Laukkonen J, Blanco PK, Lenhart J et al (2009) Combining climate change adaptation and mitigation measures at the local level. Habitat Int 33(3):287–292
Lempert RJ, Collins MT (2007) Managing the risk of uncertain threshold responses: comparison of robust, optimum, and precautionary approaches. Risk Anal 27(4):1009–1026
Lin BB (2011) Resilience in agriculture through crop diversification: adaptive management for environmental change. Bioscience 61(3):183–193
Lyles W, Stevens M (2014) Plan quality evaluation 1994–2012: growth and contributions, limitations, and new directions. J Plan Educ Res 34(4):433–450
Lyles LW, Berke P, Smith G (2014) Do planners matter? Examining factors driving incorporation of land use approaches into hazard mitigation plans. J Environ Plann Manage 57(5):792–811
Measham TG, Preston BL, Smith TF, Brooke C, Gorddard R, Withycombe G, Morrison C (2011) Adapting to climate change through local municipal planning: barriers and challenges. Mitigation Adapt Strat Global Change 16(8):889–909
Moser SC, Luers AL (2008) Managing climate risks in California: the need to engage resource managers for successful adaptation to change. Clim Change 87(1):309–322
Næss LO, Bang G, Eriksen S, Vevatne J (2005) Institutional adaptation to climate change: flood responses at the municipal level in Norway. Global Environ Change 15(2):125–138
Picketts IM, Déry SJ, Curry JA (2014) Incorporating climate change adaptation into local plans. J Environ Plann Manage 57(7):984–1002
Preston BL, Westaway RM, Yuen EJ (2011) Climate adaptation planning in practice: an evaluation of adaptation plans from three developed nations. Mitigation Adapt Strat Global Change 16(4):407–438
Romsdahl RJ, Atkinson L, Schultz J (2013) Planning for climate change across the US Great Plains: concerns and insights from government decision-makers. J Environ Stud Sci 3(1):1–14
Rumore D, Schenk T, Susskind L (2016) Role-play simulations for climate change adaptation education and engagement. Nat Clim Change 6(8):745–750
Schwab J (2010) Hazard mitigation: Integrating best practices into planning. American Planning Association. Planning Advisory Service, Report Number 560. Chicago, IL
Shi L, Chu E, Debats J (2015) Explaining progress in climate adaptation planning across 156 US municipalities. J Am Plan As 81(3):191–202
Shi L, Chu E, Anguelovski I, Aylett A, Debats J, Goh K, Schenk T, Seto KC, Dodman D, Roberts D, Roberts JT, VanDeveer SD (2016) Roadmap towards justice in urban climate adaptation research. Nat Clim Change 6(2):131–137
Snover AK, Whitely Binder L, Lopez J, Willmott E, Kay J, Howell D, Simmonds J. (2007) Preparing for climate change: a guidebook for local, regional, and state governments. In association with and published by ICLEI – Local Governments for Sustainability, Oakland, CA
Stevens MR, Senbel M (2017) Are municipal land use plans keeping pace with global climate change? Land Use Policy 68:1–14
Stevens MR, Lyles W, Berke PR (2014) Measuring and reporting intercoder reliability in plan quality evaluation research. J Plan Educ Res 34(1):77–93
Stone B, Vargo J, Habeeb D (2012) Managing climate change in cities: will climate action plans work? Landscape Urban Plann 107(3):263–271
Tang Z, Brody SD, Quinn C, Chang L, Wei T (2010) Moving from agenda to action: evaluating local climate change action plans. J Environ Plann Manage 53(1):41–62
Tang Z, Dai Z, Fu X, Li X (2013) Content analysis for the US coastal states’ climate action plans in managing the risks of extreme climate events and disasters. Ocean Coast Manage 80:46–54
Urwin K, Jordan A (2008) Does public policy support or undermine climate change adaptation? Exploring policy interplay across different scales of governance. Global Environ Change 18(1):180–191
USGCRP (2017) Climate science special report: fourth national climate assessment, volume I [Wuebbles DJ, Fahey DW, Hibbard KA, Dokken DJ, Stewart BC, Maycock TK (eds)]. U.S. global change research program, Washington, DC, USA. https://doi.org/10.7930/j0j964j6
Van Aalst MK, Cannon T, Burton I (2008) Community level adaptation to climate change: the potential role of participatory community risk assessment. Global Environ Change 18(1):165–179
Wheeler SM (2008) State and municipal climate change plans: the first generation. J Am Plan As 74(4):481–496
Wisner B (2004) Assessment of capability and vulnerability. Mapping vulnerability: disasters, development and people. Earthscan, London pp 183–193
Woodruff SC, Stults M (2016) Numerous strategies but limited implementation guidance in US local adaptation plans. Nat Clim Change 6:796–802
Acknowledgements
This paper is funded by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) (Award Number: NA16OAR4210123). The contents do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the funding agencies, and mention of trade names or commercial products do not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Hu, Q., Tang, Z., Shulski, M. et al. An examination of midwestern US cities’ preparedness for climate change and extreme hazards. Nat Hazards 94, 777–800 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-018-3420-y
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-018-3420-y