Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

Basic psychological need satisfaction, need frustration, and need strength across four cultures

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Motivation and Emotion Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The present study investigated whether satisfaction and frustration of the psychological needs for autonomy, relatedness, and competence, as identified within Basic Psychological Need Theory (BPNT; Deci and Ryan, Psychol Inquiry 11:227–268, 2000; Ryan and Deci, Psychol Inquiry 11:319–338, 2000), contributes to participants’ well-being and ill-being, regardless of their cultural background and interpersonal differences in need strength, as indexed by either need valuation (i.e., the stated importance of the need to the person) or need desire (i.e., the desire to get a need met). In Study 1, involving late adolescents from Belgium and China (total N = 685; Mean age = 17 years), autonomy and competence satisfaction had unique associations with well-being and individual differences in need valuation did not moderate these associations. Study 2 involved participants from four culturally diverse nations (Belgium, China, USA, and Peru; total N = 1,051; Mean age = 20 years). Results provided evidence for the measurement equivalence of an adapted scale tapping into both need satisfaction and need frustration. Satisfaction of each of the three needs was found to contribute uniquely to the prediction of well-being, whereas frustration of each of the three needs contributed uniquely to the prediction of ill-being. Consistent with Study 1, the effects of need satisfaction and need frustration were found to be equivalent across the four countries and were not moderated by individual differences in the desire for need satisfaction. These findings underscore BPNT’s universality claim, which states that the satisfaction of basic needs for autonomy, relatedness, and competence represent essential nutrients for optimal functioning across cultures and across individual differences in need strength.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Before testing the structural model with composite latent variables for need satisfaction and frustration, we examined a second-order CFA model with the three need satisfaction constructs and the three need frustration constructs as the six first-order factors, and with composite constructs for need satisfaction and need frustration as two second-order factors. The model fit the data well, with SBS-χ2 (239) = 433.32, CFI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.04 and SRMR = 0.04. This model justified the use of composite latent scores for need satisfaction and need frustration in the structural path analysis.

  2. After testing the moderating effects of desire in the total sample, we also performed a multi-group SEM analysis to examine whether the moderation effect would be significant in some of the subsamples. We found that the moderating effects were non-significant in all four countries.

References

  • Ahmad, I., Vansteenkiste, M., & Soenens, B. (2013). The relations of Arab Jordanian adolescents’ perceived maternal parenting to teacher-rated adjustment and problems: The intervening role of perceived need satisfaction. Developmental Psychology, 49, 177–183.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bartholomew, K., & Horowitz, L. M. (1991). Attachment styles among young adults: A test of a four-category model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 226–244.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bartholomew, K. J., Ntoumanis, N., Ryan, R. M., Bosch, J., & Thogersen-Ntoumani, C. (2011). Self-determination theory and diminished functioning: The role of interpersonal control and psychological need thwarting. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37, 1459–1473.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497–529.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boone, L., Vansteenkiste, M., van der Kaap-Deeder, J., Soenens, B., & Verstuyf, J. (2014). Self-critical perfectionism and binge eating symptoms: A longitudinal test of the intervening role of psychological need frustration. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 61, 363–373.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burr, V. (2003). Social constructionism (2nd ed). London, New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buttle, F. (1989). The social construction of needs. Psychology and Marketing, 6, 197–210.

  • Carvallo, M., & Gabriel, S. (2006). No man is an island: The need to belong and dismissing avoidant attachment style. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 697–709.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, B., Van Assche, J., Vansteenkiste, M., Soenens, B. & Beyers, W. (2014). Does psychological need satisfaction matter when environmental or financial safety are at risk? Journal of Happiness Studies. doi:10.1007/s10902-014-9532-5.

  • Chen, B., Vansteenkiste, M., Beyers, M., Soenens, B., & Van Petegem (2013). Autonomy in family decision-making for Chinese adolescents: Disentangling the dual meaning of autonomy. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 44, 1184–1209.

  • Chirkov, V., Ryan, R. M., Kim, Y., & Kaplan, U. (2003). Differentiating autonomy from individualism and independence: A self-determination theory perspective on internalization of cultural orientations and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 97–110.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Church, A. T., Katigbak, M. S., Locke, K. D., Zhang, H.-S., Shen, J., Vargas-Flores, J. D., et al. (2012). Need satisfaction and well-being: Testing self-determination theory in eight cultures. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 44, 1–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Connell, J. P., & Wellborn, J. G. (1991). Competence, autonomy and relatedness: A motivational analysis of self-system processes. In M. R. Gunnar & L. A. Sroufe (Eds.), The Minnesota symposium on child psychology: Self-processes in development (Vol. 22, pp. 43–77). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

  • Cordeiro, P., Paixão, P., Lens, W., & Silva, T. (2014, in press). The Portuguese adaptation of the Balanced Measure of Psychological Needs Scale: Dimensionality and construct validity. Spanish Journal of Psychology.

  • deCharms, R. (1968). Personal causation. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L. (1975). Intrinsic motivation. New York: Plenum.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., Betley, G., Kahle, J., Abrams, L., & Porac, J. (1981). When trying to win: Competition and intrinsic motivation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 7, 79–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). The general causality orientations scale: Self-determination in personality. Journal of Research in Personality, 19, 109–134.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227–268.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2012). Motivation, personality, and development within embedded social contexts: An overview of self-determination theory. In R. M. Ryan (Ed.), Oxford Handbook of human motivation (pp. 85–107). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., Ryan, R. M., Gagné, M., Leone, D. R., Usunov, J., & Kornazheva, B. P. (2001). Need satisfaction, motivation, and well-being in the work organizations of a former Eastern Bloc country. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 930–942.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E. (2009). Conclusion: What we have learnt and where we go next. In E. D. Diener (Eds.). Culture and Well-Being (pp. 288). New York: Springer.

  • Diener, E., Diener, M., & Diener, C. (2009). Factors predicting the subjective well-being of nations. In E. D. Diener (Eds.). Culture and well-being (pp. 43–70). New York: Springer.

  • Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fontaine, J. R. J. (2005). Equivalence. In K. Kempf-Leonard (Ed.), Encyclopediaofsocialmeasurement (Vol. 1, pp. 803–813). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fousiani, K., Van Petegem, S., Soenens, B., Vansteenkiste, M., & Chen, B. (2014). Does perceived parental autonomy support relate to adolescent autonomy? An examination of a seemingly simple question. Journal of Adolescent Research, 29, 299–330.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gillet, N., Gagné, M., Sauvagère, S., & Fouquereau, E. (2013). The role of supervisor autonomy support, organizational support, and autonomous and controlled motivation in predicting employees’ satisfaction and turnover intentions. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 22, 450–460.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harackiewicz, J. M., & Sansone, C. (1991). Goals and intrinsic motivation: You can get there from here. In M. L. Maehr & P. R. Pintrich (Eds.), Advances in motivation and achievement (Vol. 7, pp. 21–49). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

  • Harkness, J. A., Van de Vijver, F. J. R, & Johnson, T. P. (2002).Questionaire design in comparative research. In J. A. Harkness, F. J. R. Van de Vijver & T. P. Johnson (Eds.). Cross-cultural survey methods (pp. 19–34). Wiley Series in Survey Methodology. New York: Wiley.

  • Heine, S. J., Lehman, D. R., Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1999). Is there a universal need for positive self-regard? Psychology Review, 106, 766–794.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hofer, J., & Busch, H. (2011). Satisfying one’s needs for competence and relatedness: consequent domain-specific well-being depends on strength of implicit motives. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39, 1147–1158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010). National culturesbynations [Website of Geert Hofstede]. http://geert-hofstede.com/countries.html.

  • Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ilardi, B. C., Leone, D., Kasser, R., & Ryan, R. M. (1993). Employee and supervisor ratings of motivation: Main effects and discrepancies associated with job satisfaction and adjustment in a factory setting. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 23, 1789–1805.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Iyengar, S. I., & DeVoe, S. E. (2003). Rethinkingthevalueofchoice: Consideringculturalmediatorsofintrinsicmotivation. In V. Murphy-Berman & J. J. Berman (Eds.), Nebraska symposium on motivation (Vol. 49, pp. 129–176)., Cross-culturaldifferences in perspectives on theself Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Iyengar, S. S., & Lepper, M. R. (1999). Rethinking the value of choice: A cultural perspective on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 349–366.

  • Jang, H., Reeve, J., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Can self-determination theory explain what underlies the productive, satisfying learning experiences of collectivistic oriented Korean adolescents? Journal of Educational Psychology, 101, 644–661.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kasser, V., & Ryan, R. M. (1999). The relation of psychological needsfor autonomy and relatedness to vitality, well-being, and mortalityin a nursing home. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 29, 935–954.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • La Guardia, J., Ryan, R. M., Couchman, C. E., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Within-person variation in security of attachment: A self-determination theory perspective on attachment, need fulfillment, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 367–384.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lei, M., & Lomax, R. G. (2005). The effect of varying degrees of nonnormality in structural equation modeling. Structural Equation Modeling, 12, 1–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Little, T. D. (1997). Mean and covariance structure (MACS) analysis of cross-cultural data: Practical and theoretical issues. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 32, 53–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (2003). Models of agency: Sociocultural diversity in the construction of action. In V. Murphy-Berman & J. Berman (Eds.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation (Vol. 49, pp. 1–57)., Cross-cultural differences in perspectives on self Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Markus, H. R., & Schwartz, B. (2010). Does choice mean freedom and well-being? Journal of Consumer Research, 37, 344–354.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McAdams, D. P. (1989). Intimacy: The need to be close. New York: Doubleday.

    Google Scholar 

  • McClelland, D. C. (1965). Toward a theory of motive acquisition. American Psychologist, 20, 321–333.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, J. G., Das, R., & Chakravarthy, S (2011). Culture and role of choice in agency. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101, 46–61.

  • Mouratidis, A., Vansteenkiste, M., Sideridis, G., & Lens, W. (2011). Vitality and interest-enjoyment as a function of class-to-class variation in need-supportive teaching and pupils’ autonomous motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 103, 353–366.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2007). Mplus user’s guide (5th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén&Muthén.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oishi, S., Diener, E., Lucas, R. E., & Suh, E. M. (1999). Cross-cultural variations in predictors of life satisfaction: Perspectives from needs and values. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 980–990.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Radloff, S. L. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385–401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rist, G. (1980). Basic questions about basic human needs. In K. Lederer (Ed.), human needs (pp. 233–254). Cambridge, MA: Oelgsschlager, Gunn, & Hain.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roy, R. (1980). Human needs and freedom: Liberal, Marxist and Ghandianperspectives. In K. Lederer (Ed.), Human needs (pp. 191–212). Cambridge, MA: Oelgsschlager, Gunn, & Hain.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M. (1995). Psychological needs and the facilitation of integrative processes. Journal of Personality, 63, 397–427.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., Bernstein, J. H., & Brown, K. W. (2010). Weekends, work, and wellbeing: Psychological need satisfactions and dayof the week effects on mood, vitality, and physical symptoms. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 29, 95–122.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). The darker and brighter sides of human existence: Basic psychological needs as a unifying concept. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 319–338.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: Areview of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 141–166.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2011). A self-determination theory perspective on social, institutional, cultural, and economic supports for autonomy and their importance for well-being. In V. I. Chirkov, R. M. Ryan, & K. M. Sheldon (Eds). Human autonomy in cross-cultural context: Perspectives on the psychology of agency, freedom, and well-being (pp. 45–64). New York: Springer.

  • Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L., Grolnick, W. S., & La Guardia, J. G. (2006). The significance of autonomy and autonomy support in psychological development and psychopathology. In D. Cicchetti & D. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Theory and methods (2nd Edn.; Vol. 1 (pp. 795–849). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L., & Vansteenkiste, M. (in press). Autonomy and autonomy disturbances in self-development and psychopathology: Research on motivation, attachment, and clinical process. To appear in D. Cicchetti (Ed.), Developmental Psychopathology (3rd Edn). New York: Wiley.

  • Ryan, R. M., & Frederick, C. M. (1997). On energy, personality and health: Subjective vitality as a dynamic reflection of well-being. Journal of Personality, 65, 529–565.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., Koestner, R., & Deci, E. L. (1991). Ego-involved persistence: When free-choice behavior is not intrinsically motivated. Motivation and Emotion, 15, 185–205.

  • Ryan, R. M., & Lynch, J. (1989). Emotional autonomy versus detachment: Revisiting the vicissitudes of adolescence and young adulthood. Child Development, 60, 340–356.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of eudaimonic well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 1069–1081.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Satorra, A., & Bentler, P. M. (1994). Corrections to standard errors in covariance structure analysis. In A. von Eye & C. C. Clogg (Eds.), Latent variable analysis: Applications to developmental research (pp. 399–419). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schüler, J., Brandstätter, V. & Sheldon, K. M. (2013). Do implicit motives and basic psychological needs interact to predict well-being and flow? testing a universal hypothesis and a matching hypothesis. Motivation and Emotion, 37, 480–495.

  • Schüler, J., Sheldon, K. M., & Fröhlich, S. M. (2010). Implicit need for achievement moderates the relationship between competence need satisfaction and subsequent motivation. Journal of Research in Personality, 44, 1–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schultheiss, O.C. (2008). Implicit motives. In: O. P. John, R. W. Robins & L. A. Pervin (Eds.), Handbook of personality psychology: theory and research (pp. 603–633). New York: Guilford Press.

  • Schwartz, S. H., & Bardi, A. (2001). Value hierarchies across cultures: Taking a similarities perspective. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 32, 268–290.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sheldon, K. M., Cheng, C., & Hilpert, J. (2011). Understanding well-being and optimal functioning: Applying the multilevel personality in context (MPIC) model. Psychological Inquiry, 22, 1–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sheldon, K. M., Elliot, A. J., Kim, Y., & Kasser, T. (2001). What is satisfying about satisfying events? Testing 10 candidate psychological needs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 325–339.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sheldon, K. M., & Gunz, A. (2009). Psychological needs as basic motives, not just experiential requirements. Journal of Personality, 77, 1467–1492.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sheldon, K. M., & Hilpert, J. C. (2012). The balanced measure of psychological needs (BMPN) scale: An alternative domain general measure of need satisfaction. Motivation and Emotion, 36, 439–451.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sheldon, K. M. & Schüler, J. (2011). Needing, wanting, and having: Integrating motive disposition theory and self-determination theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101, 1106–1123.

  • Shweder, R. A., Goodnow, J., Hatano, G., LeVine, R. A., Markus, H. R., & Miller, P. J. (1998). The cultural psychology of development: One mind, many mentalities. In W. Damon (Series Ed.) & R. M. Lerner (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 1. Theoretical models of human development (5th Ed., pp. 865–937). New York: Wiley.

  • Standage, M., Duda, J.L., & Ntoumanis, N. (2005). A test of self-determination theory in school physical education. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 75, 411–433.

  • Stebbings, J., Taylor, I. M., Spray, C. M., & Ntoumanis, N. (2012). Antecedents of perceived coach interpersonal behaviors: The coaching environment and coach psychological well and ill-being. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 34, 481–502.

  • Tay, L., & Diener, E. (2011). Needs and subjective well-being around the world. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101, 354–365.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tooby, J., & Cosmides, L. (1992). The psychological foundations of culture. In J. H. Barkow, L. Comsides, & J. Tooby (Eds.), The adapted mind: Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture (pp. 19–36). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Uchida, Y., & Kitayama, S. (2009). Happiness and unhappiness in east and west: Themes and variations. Emotion, 9, 441–456.

  • Uchida, Y., Norasakkunkit, V., & Kitayama, S. (2004). Cultural constructions of happiness: Theory and empirical evidence. Journal of Happiness Studies, 5, 223–239.

  • Vallerand, R. J. (2000). Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory: A view from the hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. PsychologicalInquiry, 11, 312–318.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van den Broeck, A., Vansteenkiste, M., De Witte, H., Soenens, B., & Lens, W. (2010). Capturing autonomy, competence and relatedness at work: Construction and initial validation of the Work-related Basic Need Satisfaction scale. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 83, 981–1002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Petegem, S., Beyers, W., Vansteenkiste, M., & Soenens, B. (2012). On the associations between adolescent autonomy and psychosocial functioning: Examining decisional independence from a self-determination theory perspective. Developmental Psychology, 48, 76–88.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vansteenkiste, M., & Deci, E. L. (2003). Competitively contingent rewards and intrinsic motivation: Can losers remain motivated? Motivation and Emotion, 27, 273–299.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vansteenkiste, M., Lens, W., Soenens, B., & Luyckx, K. (2006). Autonomy and relatedness among Chinese sojourners and applicants: Conflictual or independent predictors of well-being and adjustment? Motivation and Emotion, 30, 273–282.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vansteenkiste, M., Niemiec, C. P., & Soenens, B. (2010). The development of the five mini-theories of self-determination theory: A historical overview, emerging trends and future directions. In T. Urdan & S. Karabenick (Eds.), Advances in motivation and achievement (Vol. 16, pp. 105–166)., The decade ahead UK: Emerald Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vansteenkiste, M., & Ryan, R. M. (2013). On psychological growth and vulnerability: Basic psychological need satisfaction and need frustration as a unifying principle. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 3, 263–280.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Verstuyf, J., Vansteenkiste, M., Soenens, B., Boone, L., & Mouratidis, A. (2013). Daily ups and downs in women’s binge eating symptoms: The role of basic psychological needs, general self-control and emotional eating. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 32, 335–361.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White, R. W. (1959). Motivation reconsidered: The concept of competence. Psychological Review, 66, 297–333.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, G. C., Patrick, H., Niemiec, C. P., Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L., & Lavigne, H. M. (2011). The smoker’s health project: A self-determination theory intervention to facilitate maintenance of tobacco abstinence. Contemporary Clinical Trials, 32, 535–543.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Beiwen Chen or Maarten Vansteenkiste.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Chen, B., Vansteenkiste, M., Beyers, W. et al. Basic psychological need satisfaction, need frustration, and need strength across four cultures. Motiv Emot 39, 216–236 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-014-9450-1

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-014-9450-1

Keywords

Navigation