Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Can a golf course support biodiversity and ecosystem services? The landscape context matter

  • Review Article
  • Published:
Landscape Ecology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Context

In the last 30 years, the number of golf courses has increased dramatically worldwide. Since no other sport occupies and manages such large areas of green space, landscape context is crucial for determining their impacts or benefits.

Objectives

(1) Examine how they affect the main landscape socio-environmental landscape components; (2) analyze the knowledge network structure characterizing the research focused on golf courses; (3) discuss the most common best management practices to mitigate their environmental impacts; and (4) suggest new research perspectives.

Methods

This paper has reviewed 239 papers from academic library databases through a literature review and co-word network analysis.

Results

Golf courses have impacted negatively on water and soil components, while positively on biodiversity, ecosystem services, and tourism, mainly in urban contexts. The best management practices have focused on soil, biodiversity and ecosystem services, water quality and quantity, and have given specific indications for amphibians, birds, turtles, and bee species. Few articles have considered the landscape perspective, despite the potential impact on natural or semi-natural landscapes.

Conclusions

New clusters of research and management issues, in order to link biodiversity conservation with landscape perspective, have emerged: the need to increase (1) studies focused on the effects of golf courses on the ecological processes behind the functioning of the landscape, taking into account its composition and spatial configuration; (2) the proportion of native vegetation in the landscape composition, and density and complexity of vegetation in the landscape configuration.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alaoui A, Diserens E (2011) Changes in soil structure following passage of a tracked heavy machine. Geoderma 163:283–290

    Google Scholar 

  • Andersson E, Barthel S, Borgström S, Colding J, Elmqvist T, Folke C, Gren Å (2014) Reconnecting Cities to the biosphere: stewardship of green infrastructure and urban ecosystem services. Ambio 43:445–453

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bachman M, Inamdar S, Barton S, Duke JM, Tallamy D, Bruck J (2016) A comparative assessment of runoff nitrogen from turf, forest, meadow, and mixed landuse watersheds. J Am Water Resour As 52(2):397–408

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Berrill M, Bertram S, Wilson A, Louis S, Brigham D, Stromberg C (1993) Lethal and sublethal impacts of pyrethroid insecticides on amphibian embryos and tadpoles. Environ Toxicol Chem 12:525–539

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boone FR (1988) Weather and other environmental factors influencing crop responses to tillage and traffic. Soil Till Res 11(3/4):283–358

    Google Scholar 

  • Boone MD, Semlitsch RD, Mosby C (2008) Suitability of golf course ponds for amphibian metamorphosis when bullfrogs are removed. Conserv Biol 22:172–179

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Briassoulis H (2007) Golf-centered development in coastal Mediterranean Europe: a soft sustainability test. J Sustain Tour 15(5):441–461

    Google Scholar 

  • Briassoulis H (2010) “Sorry golfers, this is not your spot!” Exploring public opposition to golf development. J Sport Soc Issues 34(3):288–311

    Google Scholar 

  • Brotons L, Herrando S (2001) Factors affecting bird communities in fragments of secondary pine forests in the North-Western Mediterranean Basin. Acta Oecol 22:21–31

    Google Scholar 

  • Burgin S, Wotherspoon D (2009) The potential for golf courses to support restoration of biodiversity for BioBanking offsets. Urban Ecosyst 12:145–55

    Google Scholar 

  • Callon M, Courtial JP, Turner WA, Bauin S (1983) From translations to problematic networks: an introduction to co-word analysis. Soc Sci Inform 22(2):191–235

    Google Scholar 

  • Carrow RN, Krum JM, Flitcroft I, Cline V (2010) Precision turfgrass management: challenges and field applications for mapping turfgrass soil and stress. Precis Agric 11:115–134

    Google Scholar 

  • Chan L, Hillel O, Elmqvist T, Werner P, Holman N, Mader A, Calcaterra E (2014) User’s manual on the singapore index on cities’ biodiversity (also known as the City Biodiversity Index). National Parks Board, Singapore

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen C-H, Liu W-L, Liaw S-L (2011) Integrated dynamic policy management methodology and system for strategic environmental assessment of golf course installation policy in Taiwan. Environ Impact Asses 31(1):66–76

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen Z, Ngo HH, Guo W, Wang X (2013) Analysis of Sydney’s recycled water schemes. Front Env Sci Eng 7(4):608–615

    Google Scholar 

  • Chester ET, Robson BJ (2013) Anthropogenic refuges for freshwater biodiversity: Their ecological characteristics and management. Biol Conserv 166:64–75

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen J (1960) A coefficient of agreement for nominal scales. Educ Psychol Meas 20:37–46

    Google Scholar 

  • Colding J, Folke C (2009) The role of golf courses in biodiversity conservation and ecosystem management. Ecosystems 12(2):191–206

    Google Scholar 

  • Colding J, Lundberg J, Lundberg S, Andersson E (2009) Golf courses and wetland fauna. Ecol Appl 19:1481–1491

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • da Silva AP, Kay BD, Perfect E (1994) Characterization of the least limiting water range of soils. Soil Sci Soc Am J 58(6):1775–1781

    Google Scholar 

  • Dai Z, Puyang X, Han L (2016) Using assessment of net ecosystem services to promote sustainability of golf course in China. Ecol Ind 63:165–171

    Google Scholar 

  • Dair I, Schofield JM (1990) Nature conservation, legislation and environmental aspects of golf course management in England. In: Cochran AJ (ed) Science and Golf. E. and F.N. Spon, London, pp 330–335

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis JS, Morais DB (2004) Factions and enclaves: small towns and socially unsustainable tourism development. J Travel Res 43(1):3–10

    Google Scholar 

  • Deslauriers MR, Asgary A, Nazarnia N, Jaeger JAG (2018) Implementing the connectivity of natural areas in cities as an indicator in the City Biodiversity Index (CBI). Ecol Ind 94:99–113

    Google Scholar 

  • Ding Y, Chowdhury GG, Foo S (2001) Bibliometric cartography of information retrieval research by using co-word analysis. Inform Process Manag 37(6):817–842

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dirksen Ch (1999) Soil physics measurements, Catena Verl. GeoEcology paperback, Reiskirchen

    Google Scholar 

  • Dobbs EK, Potter DA (2015) Forging natural links with golf courses for pollinator-related conservation, outreach, teaching, and research. Am Entomol 61:116–123

    Google Scholar 

  • Dobbs EK, Potter DA (2016) Naturalized habitat on golf courses: source or sink for natural enemies and conservation biological control? Urban Ecosyst 19:899–914

    Google Scholar 

  • Domínguez-Gómez JA, González-Gómez T (2017) Analysing stakeholders’ perceptions of golf-course-based tourism: a proposal for developing sustainable tourism projects. Tour Manage 63:135–143

    Google Scholar 

  • Donohue JC (1973) Understanding scientific literature: a bibliographic approach. The MIT press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Ficetola GF, DeBernardi F (2004) Amphibians in a human dominated land- scape: the community structure is related to habitat features and isolation. Biol Conserv 119:219–230

    Google Scholar 

  • Fox S-JC, Hockey PAR (2007) Impacts of a South African coastal golf estate on shrubland bird communities. S Afr J Sci 103(1–2):27–34

    Google Scholar 

  • Fung CKW, Jim CY (2017) Assessing the cooling effects of different vegetation settings in a Hong Kong golf course. Proc Environ Sci 37:626–636

    Google Scholar 

  • Gan H, Wickings K (2017) Soil ecological responses to pest management in golf turf vary with management intensity, pesticide identity, and application program. Agr Ecosyst Environ 246:66–77

    Google Scholar 

  • Gange AC, Lindsay DE (2002) Can golf courses enhance local biodiversity? In: Thain E (ed) Science and golf IV. Routledge, London, pp 721–736

    Google Scholar 

  • Gange AC, Lindsay DE, Schofield JM (2003) The ecology of golf courses. Biologist 50:63–68

    Google Scholar 

  • Green BH, Marshall IC (1987) An assessment of the role of golf courses in Kent, England, in protecting wildlife and landscape. Landsc Urban Plan 14:143–154

    Google Scholar 

  • Gren Å, Andersson E (2018) Being efficient and green by rethinking the urban-rural divide—combining urban expansion and food production by integrating an ecosystem service perspective into urban planning. Sustain Cities Soc 40:75–82

    Google Scholar 

  • Guzy JC, Price SJ, Dorcas ME (2013) The spatial configuration of greenspace affects semi-aquatic turtle occupancy and species richness in a suburban landscape. Landsc Urban Plan 117:46–56

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall DM, Camilo GR, Tonietto RK, Ollerton J, Ahrné K, Arduser M, Ascher JS, Baldock KCR, Fowler R, Frankie G, Goulson D, Gunnarsson B, Hanley ME, Jackson JI, Langellotto G, Lowenstein D, Minor ES, Philpott SM, Potts SG, Sirohi MH, Spevak EM, Stone GN, Threlfall CG (2016) The city as a refuge for insect pollinators. Conserv Biol 31(1):24–29

    Google Scholar 

  • Hammond RA, Hudson MD (2007) Environmental management of UK golf courses for biodiversity—attitudes and actions. Landsc Urban Plan 83:127–136

    Google Scholar 

  • Harden LA, Price SJ, Dorcas ME (2009) Terrestrial activity and habitat selection of eastern mud turtles (Kinosternon subrubrum) in a fragmented landscape: implications for habitat management of golf courses and other suburban environments. Copeia 1:78–84

    Google Scholar 

  • Hodgkison SC, Hero J-M, Warnken J (2007) The conservation value of suburban golf courses in a rapidly urbanising region of Australia. Landsc Urban Planning 79:323–337

    Google Scholar 

  • Howard JH, Julian SE, Ferrigan J (2002) Golf course design and maintenance: impacts on amphibians. USGA Turfgrass Environ Res Online 1(6):1–21

    Google Scholar 

  • Hudson MAR, Bird DM (2009) Recommendations for design and management of golf courses and green spaces based on surveys of breeding bird communities in Montreal. Landsc Urban Plan 92:335–346

    Google Scholar 

  • Jarrett M, Shackleton CM (2017) Integrating biodiversity considerations into urban golf courses: managers’ perceptions and woody plant diversity in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. J Land Use Sci 12(4):292–311

    Google Scholar 

  • Jim CY, Chen WY (2016) Legacy effect of trees in the heritage landscape of a peri-urban golf course. Urban Ecosyst 19(4):1717–1734

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones KB, Zurlini G, Kienast F, Petrosillo I, Edwards T, Wade TG, Li B-l, Zaccarelli N (2013) Informing landscape planning and design for sustaining ecosystem services from existing spatial patterns and knowledge. Landscape Ecol 28:1175–1192

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones SG, Gordon DH, Phillips GM, Richardson BRD (2005) Avian community response to a golf-course landscape unit gradient. Wildlife Soc B 33(2):422–434

    Google Scholar 

  • Knopper LD, Mineau P, Mcnamee JP, Lean DR (2005) Use of comet and micronucleus assays to measure genotoxicity in meadow voles (Microtus pennsylvanicus) living in golf course ecosystems exposed to pesticides. Ecotoxicology 14:323–335

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kohler EA, Poole VL, Reicher ZJ, Turco RF (2004) Nutrient, metal, and pesticide removal during storm and nonstorm events by a constructed wetland on an urban golf course. Ecol Eng 23:285–298

    Google Scholar 

  • Kotliar NB, Wiens JA (1990) Multiple scales of patchiness and patch structure. A hierarchical framework for the study of heterogeneity. Oikos 59:253–260

    Google Scholar 

  • Landis JR, Koch GG (1977) The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics 33:159–174

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • LaPoint S, Balkenhol N, Hale J, Sadler J, van der Ree R (2015) Ecological connectivity research in urban areas. Funct Ecol 29:868–878

    Google Scholar 

  • Larson EK, Perrings C (2013) The value of water-related amenities in an arid city: the case of the Phoenix metropolitan area. Landsc Urban Plan 109:45–55

    Google Scholar 

  • LeClerc JE, Cristol DA (2005) Are golf courses providing habitat for birds of conservation concern in Virginia? Wildlife Soc B 33(2):463–470

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu Y, Dell E, Yao H, Rufty T, Shi W (2011) Microbial and soil properties in bentgrass putting greens: impacts of nitrogen fertilization rates. Geoderma 162:215–221

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maas J, van Dillen SME, Groenewegen PP (2009) Social contacts as a possible mechanism behind the relation between green space next term and health. Health Place 15:586–595

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mackey MJ, Connette GM, Peterman WE, Semlitsch RD (2014) Do golf courses reduce the ecological value of headwater streams for salamanders in the southern Appalachian Mountains? Landsc Urban Plan 125:17–27

    Google Scholar 

  • Mankin KR (2000) An integrated approach for modelling and man- aging golf course water quality and ecosystem diversity. Ecol Modell 133:259–267

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marsh DM, Pearman PB (1997) Effects of habitat fragmentation on the abundance of two species of Leptodactylid frogs in an Andean montane forest. Conserv Biol 11:1323–1328

    Google Scholar 

  • Marzluff JM, Bowman R, Donnelly R (2001) Avian ecology and conservation in an urbanizing world. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Norwell

    Google Scholar 

  • Materna EJ, Rabeni CF, LaPoint TW (1995) Effects of the synthetic pyrethroid insecticide, Esfenvalerate, on larval leopard frogs (Rana spp.). Environ Toxicol Chem 14:613–622

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Matos C, Pereira S, Amorim EV, Bentes I, Briga-Sá A (2014) Wastewater and greywater reuse on irrigation in centralized and decentralized systems—an integrated approach on water quality, energy consumption and CO2 emissions. Sci Total Environ 493:463–471

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Metcalfe TL, Dillon PJ, Metcalfe CD (2008) Detecting the transport of toxic pesticides from golf courses into watersheds in the precambrian shield region of Ontario. Canada. Environ Toxicol Chem 27(4):811–18

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Obear GR, Hartemink AE, Soldat DJ (2014) Soils with iron-cemented layers on golf courses in the USA. Geoderma 232–234:198–207

    Google Scholar 

  • Ole RS, Nordh H, Tveit MS (2015) Impact of golf courses on cultural landscapes. Popular Scientific Articles—STERF. http://www.sterf.org/Media/Get/1804/impact-of-golf-courses-on-cultural-landscapes

  • O’Neill A, Gupta BS, Phillips DH (2014) Distribution of arsenic and risk assessment of activities on a golf course fertilised with arsenic-containing Ascophyllum nodosum seaweed. Sci Total Environ 482–483:252–259

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ortuño A, Hernández M, Civera S (2015) Golf course irrigation and self-sufficiency water in Southern Spain. Land Use Policy 44:10–18

    Google Scholar 

  • Ortuño A, Hernández M, Civera S (2016) Golf courses and land use patterns in the south-east of Spain. Land Use Policy 51:206–214

    Google Scholar 

  • Pagliai M (1998) Soil porosity aspects. Int Agrophys 4:215–232

    Google Scholar 

  • Palmer C (2004) More than just a game: The consequences of golf tourism. In: Ritchie BW, Adair D (eds) Sport tourism: interrelationships, impacts and issues. Channel View Publications, Clevedon, pp 117–134

    Google Scholar 

  • Panina LV (2010) Localized dry spots on golf greens in a moderately continental climate, and its prevention and control. Urban For Urban Green 9:253–260

    Google Scholar 

  • Peter J (2007) Japanese investment in golf course development. Int J Urban Reg 18:234–255

    Google Scholar 

  • Pullin AS, Stewart GB (2006) Guidelines for systematic review in conservation and environmental management. Conserv Biol 20:1647–1656

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • RanA (R&A) (2017) Golf around the world 2017. www.randa.org

  • Rice PJ, Horgan BP, Hamlin JL (2017) Evaluation of individual and combined management practices to reduce the off-site transport of pesticides from golf course turf. Sci Total Environ 583:72–80

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rodriguez Diaz JA, Knox JW, Weatherhead EK (2007) Competing demands for irrigation water: golf and agriculture in Spain. Irrig Drain 56(5):541–549

    Google Scholar 

  • Saarikivi J, Tähtinen S, Malmberg S, Kotze DJ (2015) Converting land into golf courses—effects on ground beetles (Coleoptera, Carabidae). Insect Conserv Diver 8:247–251

    Google Scholar 

  • Salgot M, Priestley GK, Folch M (2012) Golf course irrigation with reclaimed water in the Mediterranean: a risk management matter. Water 4:389–429

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schlossberg MJ, Schmidt JP (2007) Influence of nitrogen rate and form on quality of putting greens cohabited by creeping bentgrass and annual bluegrass. Agron J 99:99–106

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Selhorst AL, Lal R (2011) Carbon budgeting in golf course soils of Central Ohio. Urban Ecosyst 14:771–781

    Google Scholar 

  • Shao-Hua Y, Zhi-Hui C, Lie-Bao H, Xin-Shi L (2012) Study on optimization of moisture retention for golf green rootzone soil mixtures. Acta Ecol Sin 32:26–32

    Google Scholar 

  • Sláma J, Bystřický V, Štych P, Fialová D, Svobodová L, Kvítek T (2018) Golf courses: new phenomena in the landscape of the Czech Republic after 1990. Land Use Policy 78:430–446

    Google Scholar 

  • Tanner RA, Gange AC (2005) Effects of golf courses on local biodiversity. Landsc Urban Plan 71:137–146

    Google Scholar 

  • Terman MR (1997) Natural links: naturalistic Golf Courses as wildlife habitat. Landsc Urban Plan 38:183–197

    Google Scholar 

  • Terman MR (2000) Ecology and golf: saving wildlife habitats on human landscapes. Golf course Manage 68:183–197

    Google Scholar 

  • Threlfall CG, Mata L, Mackie JA, Hahs AK, Stork NE, Williams NSG, Livesley SJ (2017) Increasing biodiversity in urban green spaces through simple vegetation interventions. J Appl Ecol 54:1874–1883

    Google Scholar 

  • Threlfall CG, Walker K, Williams NSG, Hahs AK, Mata L, Stork N, Livesley SJ (2015) The conservation value of urban green space habitats for Australian native bee communities. Biol Conserv 187:240–248

    Google Scholar 

  • Threlfall CG, Williams NSG, Hahs AK, Livesley SJ (2016) Approaches to urban vegetation management and the impacts on urban bird and bat assemblages. Landsc Urban Plan 153:28–39

    Google Scholar 

  • Tu C, Wang Y, Duan W, Hertl P, Tradway L, Brandenburg R, Lee D, Snell M, Hu S (2011) Effects of fungicides and insecticides on feeding behavior and community dynamics of earthworms: implications for casting control in turfgrass systems. Appl Soil Ecol 47:31–36

    Google Scholar 

  • Udeigwe TK, Young J, Kandakji T, Weindorf DC, Mahmoud MA, Stietiya MH (2015) Elemental quantification, chemistry, and source apportionment in golf course facilities in a semi-arid urban landscape using a portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometer. Solid Earth 6:415–424

    Google Scholar 

  • Warnken J, Thompson D, Zakus DH (2001) Golf course development in a major tourist destination: implications for planning and management. Environ Manage 27(5):681–696

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Whited D, Galatowitsch S, Tester JR, Schik K, Lehtinen R, Husveth J (2000) The importance of local and regional factors in predicting effective conservation: planning strategies for wetland bird communities in agricultural and urban landscapes. Landsc Urban Plan 49:49–65

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiens JA (1989) Spatial scaling in ecology. Funct Ecol 3:385–397

    Google Scholar 

  • Winchell KM, Gibbs JP (2016) Golf courses as habitat for aquatic turtles in urbanized landscapes. Landsc Urban Plan 147:59–70

    Google Scholar 

  • Wu J (2013) Landscape sustainability science: ecosystem services and human well-being in changing landscapes. Landscape Ecol 28:999–1023

    Google Scholar 

  • Yang Y, He Z, Wang Y, Fan J, Liang Z, Stoffella PJ (2013) Dissolved organic matter in relation to nutrients (N and P) and heavy metals in surface runoff water as affected by temporal variation and land uses—a case study from Indian River Area, south Florida, USA. Agr Water Manage 118:38–49

    Google Scholar 

  • Yang Y, Wu M, Cui L (2012) Integration of three visualization methods based on co-word analysis. Scientometrics 90:659–673

    Google Scholar 

  • Yasuda M, Koike F (2006) Do golf courses provide a refuge for flora and fauna in Japanese urban landscapes? Landsc Urban Plan 75:58–68

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We sincerely thank the anonymous Reviewers for their useful and targeted suggestions and comments that have improved the quality of the manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Laboratory of Landscape Ecology, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Technologies, University of Salento, Lecce, Italy

    Irene Petrosillo, Donatella Valente, Maria Rita Pasimeni & Giovanni Zurlini

  2. Department of Foggia, Regional Environmental Protection Agency of Apulia, Foggia, Italy

    Roberta Aretano

  3. Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Technologies, University of Salento, Lecce, Italy

    Teodoro Semeraro

Authors
  1. Irene Petrosillo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Donatella Valente
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Maria Rita Pasimeni
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Roberta Aretano
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Teodoro Semeraro
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Giovanni Zurlini
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Maria Rita Pasimeni.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary material 1 (PDF 134 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Petrosillo, I., Valente, D., Pasimeni, M.R. et al. Can a golf course support biodiversity and ecosystem services? The landscape context matter. Landscape Ecol 34, 2213–2228 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-019-00885-w

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-019-00885-w

Keywords

Search

Navigation