Journal of Youth and Adolescence

, Volume 47, Issue 1, pp 1–15 | Cite as

A Universal Intervention Program Increases Ethnic-Racial Identity Exploration and Resolution to Predict Adolescent Psychosocial Functioning One Year Later

  • Adriana J. Umaña-Taylor
  • Olga Kornienko
  • Sara Douglass Bayless
  • Kimberly A. Updegraff
Empirical Research
First Online:
Received:
Accepted:
  • 451 Downloads

Abstract

Ethnic-racial identity formation represents a key developmental task that is especially salient during adolescence and has been associated with many indices of positive adjustment. The Identity Project intervention, which targeted ethnic-racial identity exploration and resolution, was designed based on the theory that program-induced changes in ethnic-racial identity would lead to better psychosocial adjustment (e.g., global identity cohesion, self-esteem, mental health, academic achievement). Adolescents (N =215; Mage =15.02, SD =.68; 50% female) participated in a small-scale randomized control trial with an attention control group. A cascading mediation model was tested using pre-test and three follow-up assessments (12, 18, and 67 weeks after baseline). The program led to increases in exploration, subsequent increases in resolution and, in turn, higher global identity cohesion, higher self-esteem, lower depressive symptoms, and better grades. Results support the notion that increasing adolescents’ ethnic-racial identity can promote positive psychosocial functioning among youth.

Keywords

Ethnicity Race Ethnic identity Racial identity Intervention 
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

Notes

Data Sharing Declaration

This manuscript’s data will not be deposited.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the students, teachers, and school administrators who partnered with us in the development and testing of the Identity Project. We also thank the following individuals for their contributions to the research process and/or to the development of the Identity Project intervention: Diamond Bravo, Michelle Capriles-Escobedo, Chelsea Derlan, Lluliana Flores, Stefanie Fuentes, Alicia Godinez, Elizabeth Harvey-Mendoza, Steven Hobaica, Nicole Hollis, Vanessa Martinez-Morales, Flavio Marsiglia, Danielle Seay, M. Dalal Safa, and Benjamin Smith. Finally, we thank Nancy Gonzales for her consultation regarding the findings.

Funding

This work was funded by internal funds from the Latino Resilience Enterprise in the T. Denny Sanford School of Social and Family Dynamics at Arizona State University.

Authors’ Contributions

A.U.T. conceived of the study, participated in its design and coordination, and drafted the manuscript; O.K. performed the statistical analysis, participated in the interpretation of the data, and drafted a portion of the manuscript; S.D.B. participated in the design and coordination of the study; K.U. participated in the design of the study and the interpretation of the data. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Compliance with Ethical Standards

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Human Subjects Research

The current study has been conducted in accordance with APA ethical guidelines for the participation of human subjects and a University Institutional Review Board approved the informed consent and procedures in this study.

Informed Consent

Informed parental consent and youth assent was obtained from all participants included in this study.

References

  1. Apfelbaum, E. P., Norton, M. I., & Sommers, S. R. (2012). Racial color blindness: Emergence, practice, and implications. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21, 205–209.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  2. Banks, J. (1993). Approaches to multicultural curriculum reform. In J. Banks & C. Banks (Eds.), Multicultural education: Issues and perspectives. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.Google Scholar
  3. Bonilla-Silva (1997). Rethinking racism: Toward a structural interpretation. American Sociological Review, 62, 465–480.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  4. Borrero, N. E., & Yeh, C. J. (2011). The multidimensionality of ethnic identity among urban high school youth. Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, 11(2), 114–135.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  5. Brittian, A. S., Kim, S. Y., Armenta, B. E., Lee, R. M., Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Schwartz, S. J., & Castillo, L. G. (2015). Do dimensions of ethnic identity mediate the association between perceived ethnic group discrimination and depressive symptoms? Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 21(1), 41.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  6. Chang, J., & Le, T. N. (2010). Multiculturalism as a dimension of school climate: The impact on the academic achievement of Asian American and hispanic youth. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 16, 485–492.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  7. Derlan, C.L., Umaña-Taylor, A.J., Updegraff, K.A., & Jahromi, L. (2017). A prospective test of the family stress model with Mexican-origin adolescent mothers. Manuscript submitted for publication.Google Scholar
  8. Devins, G. M., & Orme, C. M. (1985). Center for epidemiologic studies depression scale. In D. J. Keyser & R. C. Sweetland (Eds.), Test critiques (Vol. 2, pp. 144–160). Kansas City, MO: Test Corporation of America.Google Scholar
  9. Douglass, S., & Umaña-Taylor, A. J. (2015). A brief form of the Ethnic Identity Scale: Development and empirical validation. Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, 15, 48–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  10. Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York, NY: Norton.Google Scholar
  11. Frankenberg, E., & Orfield, G. (2007). Lessons in integration: Realizing the promise of racial diversity in American schools. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press.Google Scholar
  12. French, S. E., Seidman, E., Allen, L., & Aber, J. L. (2000). Racial/ethnic identity, congruence with the social context, and the transition to high school. Journal of Adolescent Research, 15(5), 587–602.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  13. Guzmán, M. R., Santiago-Rivera, A. L., & Hasse, R. F. (2005). Understanding academic attitudes and achievement in Mexican-origin youths: Ethnic identity, other-group orientation, and fatalism. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 11(1), 3–15.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  14. Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6, 1–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  15. Kiang, L., Supple, A. J., Stein, G. L., & Gonzalez, L. M. (2012). Gendered academic adjustment among Asian American adolescents in an emerging immigrant community. Journal of Youth and adolescence, 41(3), 283–294.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  16. Kreft, I. G., Kreft, I., & de Leeuw, J. (1998). Introducing multilevel modeling. London: Sage.Google Scholar
  17. Lee, R. M. (2003). Do ethnic identity and other-group orientation protect against discrimination for Asian Americans? Journal of Counseling Psychology, 50(2), 133–141.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  18. MacKinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., & Williams, J. (2004). Confidence limits for the indirect effect: Distribution of the product and resampling methods. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 39(1), 99–128.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  19. Marcia, J. E. (1980). Identity in adolescence. In J. Adelson (Ed.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (pp. 159–187). New York, NY: Wiley.Google Scholar
  20. Marcia, J. E. (1994). The empirical study of ego identity. In H. A. Bosma, T. G. Graafsma, H. D. Grotevant & D. J. de Levita (Eds.), Identity and development: An interdisciplinary approach (4th ed.) (pp. 281–321). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.Google Scholar
  21. Moscicki, E. K., Locke, B. Z., Rae, D. S., & Boyd, J. H. (1989). Depressive symptoms among Mexican Americans: The hispanic health and nutrition examination survey. American Journal of Epidemiology, 130(2), 348–360.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  22. Muthén, L.K., & Muthén, B.O. (2012). Mplus statistical modeling software: Release 7.0. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.Google Scholar
  23. National Center for Education Statistics, (2017). School Directory Information. https://nces.ed.gov/ccd/schoolsearch/. Accessed 29 August 2017.
  24. National Research Council & Institute of Medicine. (2009). Preventing mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders among young people: Progress and possibilities. Committee on the prevention of mental disorders and substance abuse among children, youth, and young adults: Research advances and promising interventions. In M. E. O’Connell, T. Boat & K. E. Warner (Eds.), Board on children, youth, and families, division of behavioral and social sciences and education. Washington DC: National Academies Press.Google Scholar
  25. Orfield, G. (2001). Schools more separate: Consequences of a decade of research. The civil rights project, Harvard University. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University. http://civilrightsproject.ucla.edu/research/k-12-education/integration-and-diversity/schools-more-separate-consequences-of-a-decade-of-resegregation/orfield-schools-more-separate-2001.pdf.Google Scholar
  26. Phinney, J. S. (1990). Ethnic identity in adolescents and adults: A review of research. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 499–514.  https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-2909.108.3.499.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  27. Phinney, J. S. (1992). The Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure: A new scale for use with diverse groups. Journal of Adolescent Research, 7, 156–176.Google Scholar
  28. Phinney, J. S. (1993). A three-stage model of ethnic identity development in adolescence. In M. E. P. Bernal & G. P. Knight (Eds.), Ethnic identity: Formation and transmission among Hispanics and other minorities (pp. 61–79). New York, NY: SUNY Press.Google Scholar
  29. Phinney, J. S. (1996). When we talk about American ethnic groups, what do we mean? American Psychologist, 51, 918–927.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  30. Phinney, J. S., Cantu, C. L., & Kurtz, D. A. (1997). Ethnic and American identity as predictors of self-esteem among African American, Latino, and white adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 26, 165–185.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  31. Phinney, J. S., Jacoby, B., & Silva, C. (2007). Positive intergroup attitudes: The role of ethnic identity. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 31, 478–490.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  32. Ponterotto, J. G., Gretchen, D., Utsey, S. O., Stracuzzi, T., & Saya, Jr., R. (2003). The multigroup ethnic identity measure (MEIM): Psychometric review and further validity testing. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 63, 502–515.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  33. Preacher, K. J., & Kelley, K. (2011). Effect size measures for mediation models: Quantitative strategies for communicating indirect effects. Psychological Methods, 16(2), 93–115.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  34. Quintana, S. M. (1994). A model of ethnic perspective-taking ability applied to Mexican-American children and youth. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 18(4), 419–448.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  35. Quintana, S. M., Castaneda-English, P., & Ybarra, V. C. (1999). Role of perspective-taking abilities and ethnic socialization in development of adolescent ethnic identity. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 9, 161–184.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  36. Radloff, L. (1977). The CES-D Scale A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 7, 385–401.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  37. Reese, L., Vera, E., & Paikoff, R. (1998). Ethnic identity assessment among inner-city African American children: Evaluating the applicability of the multigroup ethnic identity measure. Journal of Black Psychology, 24, 289–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  38. Rivas-Drake, D., Seaton, E. K., Markstrom, C., Quintana, S., Syed, M., Lee, R., Schwartz, S. J., Umaña-Taylor, A. J., French, S., & Yip, T., Study Group on Ethnic and Racial Identity in the 21st Century. (2014). Ethnic and racial identity in adolescence: Implications for psychosocial, academic, and health outcomes. Child Development, 85, 40–57.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  39. Rivas-Drake, D. & Umaña-Taylor, A. J. (2017). Below the surface: ethnic-racial identity and intergroup relations in U.S. Youth. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Manuscript submitted for publication.Google Scholar
  40. Roosa, M. W., Reinholtz, C., & Angelini, P. J. (1999). The relation of child sexual abuse and depression in young women: Comparisons across four ethnic groups. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 27(1), 65–76.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  41. Rosenberg, M. (1979). Conceiving the self. New York, NY: Basic Books.Google Scholar
  42. Rosenthal, D. A., Gurney, R. M., & Moore, S. M. (1981). From trust on intimacy: A new inventory examining Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 10(6), 525–537.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  43. Schwartz, S. J., Zamboanga, B. L., Wang, W., & Olthuis, J. V. (2009). Measuring identity from an Eriksonian perspective: Two sides of the same coin? Journal of Personality Assessment, 91(2), 143–154.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  44. Schwartz, S. J., Zamboanga, B. L., & Jarvis, L. H. (2007). Ethnic identity and acculturation in Hispanic early adolescents: Mediated relationships to academic grades, prosocial behaviors, and externalizing symptoms. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 13, 364–373.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  45. Seaton, E. K., Scottham, K. M., & Sellers, R. M. (2006). The status model of racial identity development in African American adolescents: Evidence of structure, trajectories, and well-being. Child Development, 77, 1416–1426.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  46. Shrout, P. E., & Bolger, N. (2002). Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: New procedures and recommendations. Psychological methods, 7(4), 422–445.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  47. Skinner, E. A., Kindermann, T. A., & Furrer, C. J. (2008). A motivational perspective on engagement and disaffection: Conceptualization and assessment of children’s behavioral and emotional participation in academic activities in the classroom. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 69(3), 493–525.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  48. Smalls, C., & Cooper, S. M. (2012). Racial group regard, barrier socialization, and African American adolescents’ engagement: Patterns and processes by gender. Journal of Adolescence, 35(4), 887–897.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  49. Smokowski, P. R., Evans, C. B., Cotter, K. L., & Webber, K. C. (2014). Ethnic identity and mental health in American Indian youth: Examining mediation pathways through self-esteem, and future optimism. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43(3), 343–355.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  50. Spears, S. S. (2004). The impact of a cultural competency course on the racial identity of MSWs. Smith College Studies in Social Work, 74(2), 272–288.  https://doi.org/10.1080/00377310409517716.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  51. Syed, M., & Azmitia, M. (2008). A narrative approach to ethnic identity in emerging adulthood: Bringing life to the identity status model. Developmental Psychology, 44(4), 1012–1027.  https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.44.4.1012.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  52. Syed, M., & Azmitia, M. (2009). Longitudinal trajectories of ethnic identity during the college years. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 19(4), 601–624.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  53. Syed, M., Azmitia, M., & Phinney, J. S. (2007). Stability and change in ethnic identity among Latino emerging adults in two contexts. Identity: An International Journal of Theory, 7, 155–178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  54. Tummala-Narra, P. (2015). Ethnic identity, perceived support, and depressive symptoms among racial minority immigrant-origin adolescents. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 85(1), 23–33.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  55. Umaña-Taylor, A. J. (2016). Ethnic-racial identity: Conceptualization, development, and associations with youth adjustment. In L. Balter & C. S. Tamis-LeMonda (Eds.), Child psychology: A handbook of contemporary issues (3rd edn.) (pp. 305–327). New York, NY: Psychology Press, Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
  56. Umaña-Taylor, A. J., & Douglass, S. (2016). Developing an ethnic-racial identity intervention from a developmental perspective: Process, content, and implementation. In N. J. Cabrera & B. Leyendecker (Eds.), Handbook of positive development of minority children and youth (pp. 437–453). Cham, Switzerland: Springer.Google Scholar
  57. Umaña-Taylor, A.J., Douglass, S., Updegraff, K.A., & Marsiglia, F. (2017). Small-scale randomized efficacy trial of the identity project: Promoting adolescents’ ethnic-racial identity exploration and resolution. Child Development.  https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12755 (in press)
  58. Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Quintana, S. M., Lee, R. M., Cross, W. E., Rivas-Drake, D., Schwartz, S. J., Syed, M., Yip, T., & Seaton, E., Study Group on Ethnic and Racial Identity in the 21st Century. (2014). Ethnic and racial identity revisited: An integrated conceptualization. Child Development, 85, 21–39.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  59. Umaña-Taylor, A. J., & Shin, N. (2007). An examination of the Ethnic Identity Scale with diverse populations: Exploring variation by ethnicity and geography. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 13, 178–186.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  60. Umaña-Taylor, A. J., & Updegraff, K. (2007). Latino adolescents’ mental health: Exploring the role of discrimination, ethnic identity, acculturation, and self-esteem. Journal of Adolescence, 30, 549–567.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  61. Umaña‐Taylor, A. J., Updegraff, K. A., Jahromi, L. B., & Zeiders, K. H. (2015). Trajectories of ethnic–racial identity and autonomy among Mexican‐origin adolescent mothers in the United States. Child Development, 86(6), 2034–2050.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  62. Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Yazedjian, A., & Bámaca-Gómez, M. Y. (2004). Developing the ethnic identity scale using Eriksonian and social identity perspectives. Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, 4, 9–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  63. Williams, J. L., Tolan, P. H., Durkee, M. I., Francois, A. G., & Anderson, R. E. (2012). Integrating racial and ethnic identity research into developmental understanding of adolescents. Child Development Perspectives, 6, 304–311.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  64. Worrell, F. C. (2000). A validity study of scores on the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure based on a sample of academically talented adolescents. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 60, 439–447.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2017

Authors and Affiliations

  • Adriana J. Umaña-Taylor
    • 1
  • Olga Kornienko
    • 2
  • Sara Douglass Bayless
    • 3
  • Kimberly A. Updegraff
    • 2
  1. 1.Harvard Graduate School of EducationHarvard UniversityCambridgeUSA
  2. 2.T. Denny Sanford School of Social and Family DynamicsArizona State UniversityTempeUSA
  3. 3.OMNI InstituteDenverUSA

Personalised recommendations