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The Dopamine D2 Receptor Polymorphism (DRD2 TaqIA) Interacts with Maternal Parenting in Predicting Early Adolescent Depressive Symptoms: Evidence of Differential Susceptibility and Age Differences

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Abstract

Most gene-environment interaction research on depression has largely focused on negative environment and to a lesser extent on positive environment. Moreover, to date few studies have directly examined G × E at different periods in development, particularly during early adolescence. The present study addressed these issues by examining the concurrent and prospective longitudinal effects of maternal parenting, DRD2 TaqIA polymorphism, and their interaction on adolescent depressive symptoms in a sample of 1026 Chinese adolescents (M age  = 11.33 ± 0.47 years at T1, 50.3 % girls) in a three-wave longitudinal study from age 11 to 13. Results indicated that maternal positive and negative parenting significantly concurrently predicted adolescent depressive symptoms at all three waves, whereas TaqIA polymorphism had no main effect on depressive symptoms. TaqIA polymorphism interacted with negative parenting in predicting concurrent depressive symptoms at age 11 and 12. A1 carriers were more susceptible to negative parenting compared to A2A2 homozygotes, such that adolescents carrying A1 alleles experiencing high negative parenting reported more depressive symptoms but fared better when experiencing low negative parenting. However, the interaction became nonsignificant at age 13, indicating the interaction of TaqIA polymorphism and maternal parenting may vary with development. Also, there was no G × E effect on longitudinal change in depression. The findings provided evidence in support of the differential susceptibility hypothesis and shed light on the potential for dynamic change in gene-environment interactions over development.

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Acknowledgments

This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (31271105) and the Specialized Research Fund for the Doctoral Program of Higher Education (20133704110001).

Conflict of interest

All authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Ethical standard

All procedures followed were in accordance with the ethical standards of the ethics committee on human experimentation of Shandong Normal University and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed consent

Informed assent (adolescents) and consent (mothers and school principals) were obtained from all participants for being included in the study.

Authors’ contributions

WZ conceived of the study, participated in its design and coordination and drafted the manuscript; YC participated in the interpretation of the data, performed the statistical analysis and drafted the manuscript; MW participated in the design and drafted the manuscript; LJ participated in the design and help to draft the manuscript; LC helped to draft the manuscript and performed the statistical analysis; KDD helped to draft the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Shandong Normal University, No. 88 East Wenhua Road, Jinan, 250014, Shandong Province, China

    Wenxin Zhang, Yanmiao Cao, Meiping Wang, Linqin Ji, Liang Chen & Kirby Deater-Deckard

  2. Department of Psychology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA

    Kirby Deater-Deckard

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  1. Wenxin Zhang
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  2. Yanmiao Cao
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  3. Meiping Wang
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Correspondence to Wenxin Zhang.

Appendices

Appendix 1: Simple Slope and RoS Analyses for T3 Data

Using a cutoff value of ±1 SD, the simple slope for high negative parenting (b = −0.00, t = −0.04, p > .05) and low negative parenting (b = −0.00, t = −0.13, p > .05) were not significant. Simple slope tests with a cutoff of ±2 SD indicated that in the condition of very high negative parenting (b = 0.00, t = 0.01, p > .05) or very low negative parenting (b = −0.00, t = −0.11, p > .05), A1 allele was also not related to depressive symptoms at T3.

RoS analyses for the interaction at T3 indicated that the lower and upper bound regions of significance cannot be defined. That is, the lower and upper bound at T3 fell outside the recommended range of ±2 SD from the mean of parenting. Furthermore, the crossover point (1.76) was far from 0 for parenting which had been standardized, PoI (0.00) was not near .50, and PA (4 %) was smaller than 16 %. In sum, all these statistical indexes indicated that the G × E interaction was not significant at T3.

Appendix 2: Developmental Changes of Parenting

A repeated-measures ANOVA for parenting indicated that negative parenting decreased over time (F (2,952) = 6.72, p < 0.001, partial η2 = .01), whereas positive parenting did not changed over time (F (2, 952) = 0.03, p > 0.05, partial η2 = .00). Means and standard deviations for negative parenting were 1.04 ± 0.51, 1.01 ± 0.46, and 0.99 ± 0.48 for T1, T2 and T3, respectively, while the corresponding scores for positive parenting were 3.21 ± 0.53, 3.20 ± 0.52, and 3.20 ± 0.54.

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Zhang, W., Cao, Y., Wang, M. et al. The Dopamine D2 Receptor Polymorphism (DRD2 TaqIA) Interacts with Maternal Parenting in Predicting Early Adolescent Depressive Symptoms: Evidence of Differential Susceptibility and Age Differences. J Youth Adolescence 44, 1428–1440 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-015-0297-x

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-015-0297-x

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