Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Understanding the Link Between Pubertal Timing in Girls and the Development of Depressive Symptoms: The Role of Sexual Harassment

  • Empirical Research
  • Published:
Journal of Youth and Adolescence Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The link between sexual maturation, or pubertal timing, in girls and adolescent depressive symptoms is well-documented, but the underlying processes remain unclear. We examined whether sexual harassment, which has previously been linked to both pubertal timing and depressive symptoms, mediates this link, using a two-wave longitudinal study including 454 girls in 7th (M age  = 13.42, SD = .53) and 8th grade (M age  = 14.42, SD = .55). Pubertal timing was linked to depressive symptoms in both age groups, and predicted an increase in depressive symptoms among the 7th graders. Sexual harassment significantly mediated the link between pubertal timing and depressive symptoms among the 7th, but not the 8th grade girls. Together, our findings suggest that one way to prevent depressive symptoms among early-maturing girls could be to address sexual harassment in preventive intervention in early adolescence.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Allison, C., & Hyde, J. (2013). Early menarche: Confluence of biological and contextual factors. Sex Roles, 68, 55–64. doi:10.1007/s11199-011-9993-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baams, L., Dubas, J. S., Overbeek, G., & van Aken, M. A. G. (2015). Transitions in body and behavior: A meta-analytic study on how pubertal status and timing are related to adolescent sexual behavior. Journal of Adolescent Health,. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.11.019.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bayram Özdemir, S., & Stattin, H. (2014). Why and when is ethnic harassment a risk for immigrant adolescents’ school adjustment? Understanding the processes and conditions. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43, 1252–1265. doi:10.1007/s10964-013-0038-y.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benoit, B., Lacourse, E., & Claes, M. (2013). Pubertal timing and depressive symptoms in late adolescence: The moderating role of individual, peer, and parental factors. Development and Psychopathology, 25, 455–471. doi:10.1017/S0954579412001174.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Black, S., & Klein, D. (2012). Early menarcheal age and risk for later depressive symptomatology: The role of childhood depressive symptoms. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41, 1142–1150. doi:10.1007/s10964-012-9758-7.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bor, W., Dean, A. J., Najman, J., & Hayatbakhsh, R. (2014). Are child and adolescent mental health problems increasing in the twenty-first century? A systematic review. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 48, 606–616. doi:10.1177/0004867414533834.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chiodo, D., Wolfe, D. A., Crooks, C., Hughes, R., & Jaffe, P. (2009). Impact of sexual harassment victimization by peers on subsequent adolescent victimization and adjustment: A longitudinal study. Journal of Adolescent Health, 45, 246–252. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.01.006.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chumlea, W. C., Schubert, C. M., Roche, A. F., Kulin, H. E., Lee, P. A., Himes, J. H., & Sun, S. S. (2003). Age at menarche and racial comparisons in US girls. Pediatrics, 111, 110–113. doi:10.1542/peds.111.1.110.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional Learning. (2014). Organization web page. http://www.casel.org/.

  • Conley, C. S., & Rudolph, K. D. (2009). The emerging sex difference in adolescent depression: Interacting contributions of puberty and peer stress. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 593–620. doi:10.1017/S0954579409000327.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Conley, C. S., Rudolph, K. D., & Bryant, F. B. (2012). Explaining the longitudinal association between puberty and depression: Sex differences in the mediating effects of peer stress. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 691–701. doi:10.1017/S0954579412000259.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Copeland, W., Shanahan, L., Miller, S., Costello, E. J., Angold, A., & Maughan, B. (2010). Outcomes of early pubertal timing in young women: A prospective population-based study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 1218–1225. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.09081190.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • East, P. L., & Hokoda, A. (2015). Risk and protective factors for sexual and dating violence victimization: A longitudinal, prospective study of Latino and African American adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence,. doi:10.1007/s10964-015-0273-5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Faulstich, M., Carey, M., Ruggiero, L., Enyart, P., & Gresham, F. (1986). Assessment of depression in childhood and adolescence: An evaluation of the center for epidemiological studies depression scale for Children (CES-DC). American Journal of Psychiatry, 143, 1024–1027.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ge, X., Conger, R. D., & Elder, G. H. (1996). Coming of age too early: Pubertal influences on girls’ vulnerability to psychological distress. Child Development, 67, 3386–3400.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ge, X., Conger, R. D., & Elder, G. H. (2001). Pubertal transition, stressful life events, and the emergence of gender differences in adolescent depressive symptoms. Developmental Psychology, 37, 404–417. doi:10.1037//0012-1649.37.3.404.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ge, X., & Natsuaki, M. (2009). In search of explanations for early pubertal timing effects on developmental psychopathology. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 327–331. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01661.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldstein, S. E., Malanchuk, O., Davis-Kean, P. E., & Eccles, J. S. (2007). Risk factors of sexual harassment by peers: A longitudinal investigation of African American and European American adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 17, 285–300. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2007.00523.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graber, J. A. (2013). Pubertal timing and the development of psychopathology in adolescence and beyond. Hormones and Behavior, 64, 262–269. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2013.04.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gruber, J. E., & Fineran, S. (2008). Comparing the impact of bullying and sexual harassment victimization on the mental and physical health of adolescents. Sex Roles, 59, 1–13. doi:10.1007/s11199-008-9431-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton, J. L., Hamlat, E. J., Stange, J. P., Abramson, L. Y., & Alloy, L. B. (2014). Pubertal timing and vulnerabilities to depression in early adolescence: Differential pathways to depressive symptoms by sex. Journal of Adolescence, 37, 165–174. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.11.010.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55. doi:10.1080/10705519909540118.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Joinson, C., Heron, J., Araya, R., & Lewis, G. (2013). Early menarche and depressive symptoms from adolescence to young adulthood in a UK cohort. Journal of American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 52, 591–598. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2013.03.018.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Joinson, C., Heron, J., Lewis, G., Croudace, T., & Araya, R. (2011). Timing of menarche and depressive symptoms in adolescent girls from a UK cohort. British Journal of Psychiatry, 198, 17–23. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.110.080861.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jormanainen, E., Fröjd, S., Marttunen, M., & Kaltiala-Heino, R. (2014). Is pubertal timing associated with involvement in bullying in middle adolescence? Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine: An Open Access Journal, 2, 144–159. doi:10.1080/21642850.2014.881259.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaltiala-Heino, R., Kosunen, E., & Rimpela, M. (2003). Pubertal timing, sexual behavior and self-reported depression in middle adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, 26, 531–545. doi:10.1016/S0140-1971(03)00053-8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kennair, L. E. O., & Bendixen, M. (2012). Sociosexuality as predictor of sexual harassment and coercion in female and male high school students. Evolution & Human Behavior, 33, 479–490. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2012.01.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, V. E., Croninger, R. G., Linn, E., & Chen, X. (1996). The culture of sexual harassment in secondary schools. American Educational Research Journal, 33, 383–417. doi:10.3102/00028312033002383.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lichty, L. F., & Campbell, R. (2012). Targets and witnesses: Middle school students’ sexual harassment experiences. Journal of Early Adolescence, 32, 414–430. doi:10.1177/0272431610396090.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lindberg, S. M., Grabe, S., & Hyde, J. S. (2007). Gender, pubertal development, and peer sexual harassment predict objectified body consciousness in early adolescence. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 17, 723–742. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2007.00544.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Little, R. J., & Rubin, D. B. (2002). Statistical analysis with missing data (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Llewellyn, N., Rudolph, K. D., & Roisman, G. I. (2012). Other-sex relationship stress and sex differences in the contribution of puberty to depression. Journal of Early Adolescence, 32, 824–850. doi:10.1177/0272431611429945.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, S. K., Faaborg-Andersen, P., Tilton-Weaver, L. C., & Stattin, H. (2013). Peer sexual harassment and deliberate self-injury: Longitudinal cross-lag investigations in Canada and Sweden. Journal of Adolescent Health, 53, 717–722. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.06.009.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCabe, M. P., & Ricciardelli, L. A. (2004). A longitudinal study of pubertal timing and extreme body change behaviors among adolescent boys and girls. Adolescence, 39, 145–167.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McGee, R., Feehan, M., Williams, S. M., Partridge, F., Silva, P. A., & Kelly, J. (1990). DSM-III disorders in a large sample of adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 611–619. doi:10.1097/00004583-199007000-00016.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McMaster, L., Connolly, J., Pepler, D. J., & Craig, W. M. (2002). Peer to peer sexual harassment among early adolescents. Developmental Psychopathology, 14, 91–105. doi:10.1017/S0954579402001050.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mendle, J., Turkheimer, E., & Emery, R. E. (2007). Detrimental psychological outcomes associated with early pubertal timing in adolescent girls. Developmental Review, 27, 151–171. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2006.11.001.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, B., & Asparouhov, T. (2002). Latent variable analysis with categorical outcomes: Multiple-group and growth modeling in Mplus. Mplus Web Notes, 4, 1–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2010). Mplus user’s guide (6th Ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthen & Muthen.

  • Natsuaki, M. N., Biehl, M. C., & Ge, X. (2009). Trajectories of depressed mood from early adolescence to young adulthood: The effects of pubertal timing and adolescent dating. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 19, 47–74. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2009.00581.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Negriff, S., & Susman, E. J. (2011). Pubertal timing, depression and externalizing problems: A framework, review, and examination of gender difference. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21, 717–746. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00708.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Connell, M. E., Boat, T., Warner, K. E., & Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. (2009). Preventing Mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders among young people: Progress and possibilities. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olsson, G., & von Knorring, A. L. (1997). Depression among Swedish adolescents measured by the self-rating scale Center for Epidemiology Studies—Depression Child (CES-DC). European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 6, 81–87.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Patton, G. C., Coffey, C., Romaniuk, H., Mackinnon, A., Carlin, J. B., Degenhardt, L., et al. (2014). The prognosis of common mental disorders in adolescents: A 14-year prospective cohort study. Lancet, 383, 1404–1411. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(13)62116-9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pellegrini, A. D. (2001). A longitudinal study of heterosexual relationships, aggression, and sexual harassment during the transition from primary school through middle school. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 22, 1–15. doi:10.1016/S0193-3973(01)00072-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Petersen, J. L., & Hyde, J. S. (2009). A longitudinal investigation of peer sexual harassment victimization in adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, 32, 1173–1188. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2009.01.011.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Petersen, J. L., & Hyde, J. S. (2013). Peer sexual harassment and disordered eating in early adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 49, 184–195. doi:10.1037/a0028247.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, B. M., & Juvonen, J. (2011). The role of early maturation, perceived popularity, and rumors in the emergence of internalizing symptoms among adolescent girls. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40, 1407–1422. doi:10.1007/s10964-010-9619-1.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rudolph, K. D., Troop-Gordon, W., Lambert, S. F., & Natsuaki, M. N. (2014). Long-term consequences of pubertal timing for youth depression: Identifying personal and contextual pathways of risk. Development and Psychopathology, 26, 1423–1444. doi:10.1017/S0954579414001126.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Schafer, J. L., & Graham, J. W. (2002). Missing data: Our view of the state of the art. Psychological Methods, 7, 147–177. doi:10.1037//1082-989X.7.2.147.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schreck, C. J., Burek, M. W., Stewart, E. A., & Miller, J. M. (2007). Distress and violent victimization among young adolescents: Early puberty and the social interactionist explanation. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 44, 381–405. doi:10.1177/0022427807305851.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Silk, J. S., Siegle, G. J., Lee, K. H., Nelson, E. E., Stroud, L. R., & Dahl, R. E. (2014). Increased neural response to peer rejection associated with adolescent depression and pubertal development. Social Cognitive Affective Neuroscience, 9, 1798–1807. doi:10.1093/scan/nst175.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Skoog, T., & Bayram Özdemir, S. (2015). Explaining why early-maturing girls are more exposed to sexual harassment in early adolescence. Journal of Early Adolescence. doi:10.1177/0272431614568198.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2001). Using multivariate statistic (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • The Sexuality Information and Education Council of the United States. (2014). Organization web page. http://siecus.org/.

  • Trépanier, L., Juster, R.-P., Marin, M.-F., Plusquellec, P., Francois, N., Sindi, S., et al. (2013). Early menarche predicts increased depressive symptoms and cortisol levels in Quebec girls ages 11–13. Development and Psychopathology, 25, 1017–1027. doi:10.1017/S0954579413000345.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Trifan, T. A., & Stattin, H. (2015). Are adolescents’ mutually hostile interactions at home reproduced in other everyday life contexts? Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44, 598–615. doi:10.1007/s10964-014-0204-x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vaughan, E. B., Van Hulle, C. A., Beasley, W. H., Rodgers, J. L., & D’Onofrio, B. M. (2015). Clarifying the associations between age at menarche and adolescent emotional and behavioral problems. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44, 922–939. doi:10.1007/s10964-015-0255-7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Waylen, A., & Wolke, D. (2004). Sex “n” drugs “n” rock “n” roll: The meaning and social consequences of pubertal timing. European Journal of Endocrinology, 151(Suppl. 3), 151–159. doi:10.1530/eje.0.151U151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wichstrøm, L. (2000). Predictors of adolescent suicide attempts: A nationally representative longitudinal study of Norwegian adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 603–610. doi:10.1097/00004583-200005000-00014.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yuan, K. H., & Bentler, P. M. (2000). Three likelihood-based methods for mean and covariance structure analysis with nonnormal missing data. Sociological Methodology, 30, 165–200. doi:10.1111/0081-1750.00078.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by a grant received by the first author from the Swedish Crime Victim Compensation and Support Authority (02847/2013).

Conflict of interest

The authors report no conflict of interests.

Ethical standard

The Regional Ethics Review Board approved the study procedures.

Informed consent

All participants were informed about and consented to take part in the study.

Author contributions

T.S. conceived of and designed the study, and coordinated and drafted the manuscript; S.B.O. participated in the study’s design, performed the statistical analyses, and participated in drafting the manuscript; H.S. conceived of the study, designed the original longitudinal research program, and helped with the writing of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Center for Developmental Research, School of Law, Psychology and Social work, Örebro University, 701 82, Örebro, Sweden

    Therése Skoog, Sevgi Bayram Özdemir & Håkan Stattin

Authors
  1. Therése Skoog
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Sevgi Bayram Özdemir
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Håkan Stattin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Therése Skoog.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Skoog, T., Özdemir, S.B. & Stattin, H. Understanding the Link Between Pubertal Timing in Girls and the Development of Depressive Symptoms: The Role of Sexual Harassment. J Youth Adolescence 45, 316–327 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-015-0292-2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-015-0292-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation