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Parallel Mediation Effects by Sleep on the Parental Warmth-Problem Behavior Links: Evidence from National Probability Samples of Georgian and Swiss Adolescents

  • Empirical Research
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Abstract

Previous research has documented the importance of parenting on adolescent health and well-being; however, some of the underlying mechanisms that link the quality of parent–child relationship to health, adjustment, and well-being are not clearly understood. The current study seeks to address this gap by examining the extent to which sleep functioning mediates the effects by parental warmth on different measures of adolescent problem behaviors. Specifically, we test whether sleep functioning, operationalized by sleep quality and sleep quantity, mediates the relationship between the parental warmth and three measures of problem behaviors, namely alcohol use, illegal drug use, and deviance, in two nationally representative samples of Georgian (N = 6,992; M = 15.83, 60 % females, and Swiss (N = 5,575; M = 17.17, 50 % females) adolescents. Based on tests for parallel mediating effects by sleep functioning of parental warmth on problem behaviors in the MEDIATE macro in SPSS, the findings provided evidence that both sleep quality and sleep quantity independently and cumulatively mediated the effects of parental warmth on each of the three problem behaviors in both samples, with one exception. These results highlight the salience of positive parenting on sleep functioning among teens in two different cultural contexts, and, in turn, on measures of problem behaviors.

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Acknowledgments

We are indebted to all study participants. The Swiss data collection was supported by grants from the Swiss Office for Public Health (contracts 316.5139 and 316.92.5321) and by cantonal/regional offices across Switzerland. The Georgian data collection was supported by a grant from the Swiss National Science Foundation (SCOPES 7 GEPj065646).

Author contributions

A.V. conceptualized the study, worked on data analysis and interpretation, and drafted the manuscript; C.H. conducted data analysis and interpretation and worked on drafting the manuscript; A.T. assisted with the literature review; K.P. oversaw the data collection in Georgia and contributed to drafting the manuscript; H.P. assisted with the data collection in Georgia and contributed to drafting the manuscript; P.M. oversaw and lead the original SMASH project; he also participated in drafting the manuscript; All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Family Sciences, University of Kentucky, 316 Funkhouser Building, Lexington, KY, 40506, USA

    Alexander T. Vazsonyi, Charlene Harris & Agnes M. Terveer

  2. Institute of Medical Biotechnology, Tbilisi State Medical University, Tbilisi, Georgia

    Karaman Pagava & Helen Phagava

  3. University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland

    Pierre-Andre Michaud

Authors
  1. Alexander T. Vazsonyi
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  2. Charlene Harris
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  3. Agnes M. Terveer
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  4. Karaman Pagava
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  6. Pierre-Andre Michaud
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Corresponding author

Correspondence to Alexander T. Vazsonyi.

Appendices

Appendix 1

Skewness and kurtosis for dependent variables with transformations

 

Before transformation

Log transformation log(Xi)

Square root transformation √(Xi)

Reciprocal transformation (1/Xi)

Skew

Kurtosis

Skew

Kurtosis

Skew

Kurtosis

Skew

Kurtosis

Georgian

 Alcohol use

1.803

5.429

–

–

–

–

–

–

 Illegal drug use

5.619

32.099

5.199

27.733

3.852

15.533

−4.766

23.426

 Deviance

3.539

15.641

2.573

7.256

2.995

10.631

−1.999

3.470

Swiss

 Alcohol use

.984

1.600

–

–

–

–

–

–

 Illegal drug use

4.004

20.862

3.043

12.762

.808

1.117

−2.260

7.290

 Deviance

2.830

10.445

2.006

4.239

2.363

6.678

−1.520

1.562

  1. The illegal drug use measure was transformed using square root transformation in the Georgian and Swiss datasets, while the deviance measure was transformed using log transformation in both datasets

Appendix 2

The findings from parallel mediation model tests by country (standardized effects—see note at the end the table)

Dependent measures (DV)

Independent measure (IV)

Sleep quality (M1)

Total effect

Direct effect

IV → M1

M1 → DV

Indirect effect

c

c′

a1

b1

a1 × b1

β

SE

β

SE

β

SE

β

SE

β

SE

Georgians (N = 6,992) a

Alcohol use

Parental warmth

−.066***

.013

−.056

.013

.063***

.014

−.135***

.013

−.009

.002

Illegal drug use

Parental warmth

−.086***

.013

−.082***

.013

.043***

.014

−.095***

.013

−.004

.002

Deviance

Parental warmth

−.106***

.012

−.095***

.012

.070***

.013

−.128***

.013

−.009

.002

Swiss (N = 5,575)

Alcohol use

Parental warmth

−.141***

.013

−.101***

.014

.258***

.013

−.084***

.014

−.022

.004

Illegal drug use

Parental warmth

−.214***

.014

−.165***

.014

.260***

.013

−.112***

.014

−.029

.004

Deviance

Parental warmth

−.203***

.013

−.161***

.013

.258***

.013

−.100***

.014

−.025

.004

Dependent measures (DV)

Independent measure (IV)

Sleep quantity (M2)

Total effect

Direct effect

IV → M1

M1 → DV

Indirect effect

c

c′

a1

b1

a1 × b1

β

SE

β

SE

β

SE

β

SE

β

SE

Georgians (N = 6,992) b

Alcohol use

Parental warmth

−.066***

.013

−.056

.013

.046***

.014

−.043***

.013

−.002

.001

Illegal drug use

Parental warmth

−.086***

.013

−.082***

.013

.043***

.014

.008

.013

.000

.001

Deviance

Parental warmth

−.106***

.012

−.095***

.012

.051***

.014

−.037**

.128

−.013

.001

Swiss (N = 5,575)

Alcohol use

Parental warmth

−.141***

.013

−.101***

.014

.124***

.014

−.144***

.014

−.018

.003

Illegal drug use

Parental warmth

−.214***

.014

−.165***

.014

.125***

.016

−.165***

.014

−.020

.003

Deviance

Parental warmth

−.203***

.013

−.161***

.013

.119***

.016

−.140***

.013

−.017

.003

  1. Controlling for age, sex, family structure and parental education
  2. * p < .05; ** p < .01; p < .001
  3. aTotal effects for alcohol use; F(7, 5390) = 16.32, p < .001; illegal drug use, F(7, 5011) = 37.835, p < .001; deviance, F(7, 5433) = 87.186, p < .001. Variance explained by each of the models (R2) = 2 % (alcohol use); 5 % (illegal drug use); 10 % (deviance)
  4. bTotal effects for alcohol use; F(7, 5159) = 93.511, p < .001; illegal drug use F(7, 5146) = 99.997, p < .001; deviance, F(7, 5156) = 138.892, p < .001. Variance explained by each of the models (R2) = 11 % (alcohol use); 12 % (illegal drug use); 16 % (deviance)
  5. Standardized coefficients for illustration purposes only as Hayes has proposed that standardizing variables for the MEDIATE analyses as we did for this table does not result in accurate confidence interval estimates; we report them as a heuristic to understand the magnitude of effects, simply based on significance testing done with unstandardized variables

Appendix 3

Parental Warmth

Here are the opinions by youth about their parents. How is it for you?

  1. 1.

    My parents accept me as I am

  2. 2.

    I often tell my parents about my difficulties and problems

  3. 3.

    My parents understand me

  4. 4.

    I trust my parents

  5. 5.

    My parents can tell when I am sad

  6. 6.

    My parents trust me

1 = applies; 2 = applies somewhat; 3 = somewhat does not apply; 4 = does not apply.

Note: Responses were reverse coded in the study, so that higher scores indicated a higher level of parental warmth.

Sleep Quality

During the past 12 months, have you experienced problems with…

  1. 1.

    Sleep

On the topic of sleep, how is it currently for you?

  1. 2.

    You feel sleepy/tired or feel like sleeping all day long

  2. 3.

    You have trouble falling asleep at night

  3. 4.

    You wake up during the night

  4. 5.

    You have an uneasy sleep (including nightmares)

Reponses item 1: 1 = never; 2 = rarely; 3 = quite often; 4 = very often.

Responses items 2 to 5: 1 = never; 2 = rarely; 3 = often; 4 = very often.

Alcohol Use

Do you drink beverages containing alcohol?

  1. 1.

    …wine

  2. 2.

    …beer

  3. 3.

    …spirits (e.g., liquor/schnapps)

  4. 4.

    …cocktails with alcohol

  5. 5.

    …alcopops (lemonade or soda with alcohol, hooch

1 = never; 2 = once in a while; 3 = once a week; 4 = multiple times per week; 5 = daily; 6 = multiple times each day.

Illegal Drug Use

Have you consumed any of the following substances during your lifetime?

  1. 1.

    … cannabis (or marijuana, hashish, grass), smoking weed

  2. 2.

    … sniffing products (glue, sniff)

  3. 3.

    … prescription medicine to get high

  4. 4.

    … mop

  5. 5.

    …ecstasy, crystal, speed, designer drugs, other stimulants

  6. 6.

    …LSD (trip), mushrooms

  7. 7.

    …GHB (salty water, liquid ecstasy)

  8. 8.

    …cocaine or crack

  9. 9.

    … heroin

  10. 10.

    … tranquilizers without prescription

  11. 11.

    …methadone

  12. 12.

    … other

0 = No; 1 = Yes

Deviance

Here is a list of things that are prohibited by law but that can sometimes occur anyway. How many of these have you yourself done during the past 12 months?

  1. 1.

    …intentionally destroyed something that did not belong to you (phone booth, street light, car, safety fence, seating at movie theater)

  2. 2.

    …stolen or simply taken something?

  3. 3.

    … attacked an adult?

  4. 4.

    …set fire to something?

  5. 5.

    …snatched or stolen a purse/handbag, wallet, or cellphone?

  6. 6.

    …carried a weapon?

1 = Never; 2 = 1–2 times; 3 = 3 + times.

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Vazsonyi, A.T., Harris, C., Terveer, A.M. et al. Parallel Mediation Effects by Sleep on the Parental Warmth-Problem Behavior Links: Evidence from National Probability Samples of Georgian and Swiss Adolescents. J Youth Adolescence 44, 331–345 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-014-0167-y

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-014-0167-y

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